The Emergence of Islam in the 7th Century: A Political and Cultural Perspective

1. Setting the Scene: January 11-13

2. “In God’s Path” Prophet Muhammad, 622–632   Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661 Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750

3. ‘Setting the Scene’ Important Points from Introduction: • Understanding process by which expansion of Islam occurred in context of regional political and cultural environment

4. ‘Setting the Scene’ Important Points from Introduction: • “the Message” (received by Prophet Mohammed) responded to real, 7th c. social circumstances • Mohammed was a member of real community • The ‘new world’ that would emerge was rooted in, continuation of ‘old world’

5. ‘Setting the Scene’ Important Points from Introduction: • ‘Historiography’: narrative as we know it written from Muslim perspective, 9th c. and later • His perspective: drawn from 4th-6th c. sources: Christian ‘Roman’ and ‘Byzantine’

6. Roman Empire 2nd C.

7. Roman Empire 5th C.

8. Byzantium Empire 6th C.

9. Byzantium Empire mid-7Th C.

10. Persia “Sassanid” Empire c.600

11. ‘Setting the Scene’ Important Points from Introduction: • Idealized romanticized narrative of Islamic Arab ‘victors’ erases: - stories/histories of the vanquished- fact that many (most?) of conquerors were neither Arab nor Christian

12. ‘Setting the Scene’ Important Points from Introduction: • So: Arab conquests? Islamic/Muslim conquests? Which is appropriate? • He chooses ‘Arab’ because contemporary sources* use this term most frequently [*but see discussion of ‘Arab’, below]

13. ‘Setting the Scene’ Hoyland argues that not only is ‘new Islamic world’ a legacy of the past – it cannot be understood without knowledge of that past • Roman/Byzantine empire • Persian ‘Sassanid’ empire

14. ‘Setting the Scene’ Byzantine Empire: • Eastern Roman Empire • New capital Constantinople • Empire is Christian (Orthodox) • Imperialistic • Economically, politically flourishing

15. Byzantium Empire 6th C.

16. ‘Setting the Scene’ Persian Empire: • Sassanid • Expanding (building on trade with east and west) • Also increasingly influenced by Christianity (Khusrau II’s son became Christian) • Imperialistic

17. Persia “Sassanid” Empire Empire at greatest extent under Khusrau II c. 620“The King of Kings”

18. ‘Setting the Scene’ “Cold War” (4th-5th c.) – escalates into ‘Hot War’ 6th c.: need to understand dynamics of this era • Byzantines and Persians alternately enemies and allies • At one point Persians became equivalent of ‘Christian vassals’ of Byzantines (in exchange for Byzantine military support)

19. ‘Setting the Scene’ Why Important? • Reflects dynamic dominating relationships in region • Alliances were political, variable, volatile • Byzantines and Persians were building and defending empires: those around them (e.g. Avars, Turks) were empowered, enriched as they were sought out as allies

20. ‘Setting the Scene’ Byzantine and Sassanid Empires c.600

21. ‘Setting the Scene’ “The Peripheral Peoples”: • Became key players in the battle of empire between Byzantines and Persians • Established their own dynasties, ‘satellite states’, drawing on relations with empires • Hoyland ‘setting the scene’ by explaining how, why, when and where these dynamics played out prior to 7th c.

22. ‘Setting the Scene’ Important points: • Role of nomads: later understanding that they are weak because of lack central governments misses dynamic of era • Another historiographical ‘reading-back-into-past-values of present’ • Here are central to political dynamics of whole region

23. ‘Setting the Scene’ Important Points: • Religion is secondary to politics • Christians (western ‘Roman’, eastern ‘Orthodox’), Jews, Pagans – all at different times fought with and/or against each other for political goals

24. ‘Setting the Scene’ Important Points: • Religion: monotheism in both forms of Christianity, as well as Judaism well entrenched in region • Class: tended to be more popular among ruling elites than ‘common people’

25. ‘Setting the Scene’ Important Points: • Various forms of paganism (multi-god worship) remained at local level • So too did wide variety of ‘syncretic’ belief systems

26. ‘Setting the Scene’ Main overall point of chapter: • When Islam emerged in the early 7th c. (in Mecca), it was only one of many faiths – and far from the only monotheistic one common in the region • It emerged into a political scene where local interests superseded religious affiliation and tied into ‘international’ empire aspirations

27. ‘Setting the Scene’ Last significant point: • while Byzantines saw themselves as ‘Western’ -- others looked East, to Central Asia and China. • Mostly nomads: were building polities (states, aspiring to empires) • Variety of ‘faiths’: paganism, initially incorporating Christianity, later Islam

28. ‘Setting the Scene’ Major example: Mongols • Military victories in ‘name of Islam’ impressive (620s -740s) • But not unique -- Mongol expansion greater in shorter period • Hoyland’s point: Islamic expansion had longer and larger legacies but was not unique

29. ‘Setting the Scene’ Argument (1): • even those ‘fighting for Islam’ fought for different voices of that religion in political terms. • This was ‘norm’ for time and place, not unusual at all

30. Argument (2): • Attacks on Constantinople were not about destroying it (or ‘conquering Christianity): “they sought to appropriate its wealth for themselves; [secondarily and only if possible] to make themselves masters of it” • Key to understanding warfare of this era – legacy/evolution of nomadic raiding

31. ‘Islam: empire of faith’ Section 1 (of Course): • Critical moment in which three continents – Europe, Africa, Asia become irreversibly intertwined • dynamics that drew ‘Islam’ into the larger Near East in time of Prophet and his successors, also drew it into Middle East, East Asia, India, North and West Africa and Europe (especially ‘al-Andalusia’)

32. ‘Setting the Scene’ “Who were the Arabs?” • Construction: outsiders referred to those in Syrian desert, regions to south as ‘Arabs’ • over time: ‘land of the Arabs’, ‘Arabia’ • Association between ‘Arab’ and geographical space established

33. ‘Setting the Scene’ • region ‘outlier’ of Roman empire • Christians in ‘Arabia’: saw themselves as Arabs and Romans in 6th century • Geographical attachment predominant • Language of secondary importance

34. ‘Setting the Scene’ Society Divided: • ‘settled Arabs’: closely associated with culture, society of Byzantines • ‘nomadic Arabs’: heavily under influence Christian missionaries – stories of establishing local churches in name of tribal chiefs • Fought in armies of Byzantines (and Persians)

35. ‘Setting the Scene’ Romano-Arab vs Perso-Arab: • Hoyland’s point -- an Arab ‘identity’ emerging in this context that contrasted to both major polities over 4th -5th c. • Included both settled and nomadic groups • Imitating neighbouring powers in supporting emergence of dynasties lasting several generations: new to Arab society

36. ‘Setting the Scene’ Rise of warfare between Byzantium and Persia: • Critical: each appealed to different tribes/clans to become allies, supported local dynastic ambitions • Sources refer to them as ‘Saracens’ and ‘Tayyaye’; ‘Arab’ for settled people • Arabs themselves did not make these distinctions

37. ‘Setting the Scene’ Language as identity marker: growing significance • Arabic alongside Greek in one instance • Then (as we will see), the most significant ‘moment’ of all – the delivery of the ‘message’, the Qur’an in Arabic

38. ‘Setting the Scene’ Language as identity marker: growing significance • made it clear which people it was intended for • became part of Mohamed’s call ‘God spoke in Arabic because we are supposed to be the ones (chosen) to listen’

39. ‘Setting the Scene’ Crises of ‘decline’ of region in mid 6th c: • Hoyland notes various causes including environmental issues and bouts of the plague • Concludes: whatever the causes -- response to increase warfare (between ‘super powers) was not the appropriate one

40. ‘Setting the Scene’ Major empires – Byzantium, Persia, China: • All weakened but to differing degrees, differing vulnerabilities • Steppe peoples (nomads) Avars, Turks, ‘Arabs’ taking advantage

41. ‘Setting the Scene’ Persia most vulnerable: • China, Byzantiam had capitals safely tucked deep into empire, able to withstand attacks for longer. • Avars and Turks would take longer to acquire ascendancy In mid-6th century, Arabs benefited most: context for Mohamed and rise of Islam [video]

42. ‘Emergence of Islam’ VIDEO“ISLAM: Empire of Faith”(January 13)