Information Processing in Management and Marketing: Personality Styles and Meaning Profiles

1. Information Processing in Management and Marketing:Personality Styles and Meaning Profiles Shulamith Kreitler, Ph.D. Department of Psychology Tel-Aviv University Tel-Aviv, Israel Tel +972-3-5227185 Fax +972-3-5225371 E-mail Krit@netvision.net.il

2. In management and marketing information processing plays a role in: • The daily work of the manager who has to deal with large amounts of information • The act of communication which consists in the exchange of information between two or more individuals • The act of purchasing, i.e., processes involved in the decision to buy, the buying and the evaluation afterwards.

3. PsychosemanticsMEANING Cybernetics INFORMATION

4. Purpose: • To present a theory and methodology, based on the meaning system, that enable assessing information processing in management and marketing • Structure of talk: • Presentation of the meaning system • Application of the meaning system to assessing meaning styles of individuals in management and in marketing • Application of the meaning system to promoting purchasing

5. A. Presentation of the meaning system Developed by Kreitler and Kreitler, since 1968 onward

6. The system of meaning (Kreitler & Kreitler) Cognition is a system that works with meaning, namely, it responds to meanings, and produces, elaborates, stores, transforms and uses meanings.

7. Assumptions Underlying the Meaning System • Meaning is communicable • Meaning is complex • Meaning includes a personal-subjective part and an interpersonally-shared part

8. Meaning is a pattern of cognitive contents focused on a referent.

9. A referent can be an external or internal stimulus, a situation, an event, an individual, a product, the act of purchasing, etc.

10. The cognitive contents are designed to express or communicate information that would enable identifying the referent, handling it, responding to it, or dealing with it within the psychological domain.

11. Referent – Meaning Value The cognitive content and the referent form together the meaning unit. Examples: Hong Kong – is a wonderful cityAn airport – serves for transportation

12. The cognitive content is called meaning value because it fulfills the role of expressing or communicating meaning.

13. Referent – Meaning Value The meaning unit is characterized in terms of the following 5 sets of variables: Meaning Dimensions Shifts in Referent Types of Relation Forms of Expression Forms of Relation

14. The psychosemantic method consists in coding the responses in terms of the following categories: • Meaning dimensions: Content categories, such as Feelings and Emotions, Actions, Sensory Qualities (color, shape, etc.), Size, Weight • Types of Relation: Relational categories, such as Attributive, Comparative, Illustrative-Exemplifying, Metaphoric-Symbolic. • Forms of Relation : Formative categories, such as Positive or Negative, Simple or Complex (e.g., Conjunctive, Disjunctive), Absolute or Modified (e.g., always, sometimes) • Shifts of Referent : Categories of shifts to other constructs, such as from Ocean to Lake, from House to Windows • Forms of Expression : Categories of means of expression, such as words, drawings, movements, denoted objects

15. Meaning Dimensions Range of inclusion Material Functions Feelings & Emotions Types of Relations Attributive Comparative Exemplifying-illustrative Metaphoric-symbolic Forms of Relation Positive, Negative Conjunctive, Disjunctive Normative Referent Shifts Identical to input Part of input Association Forms of Expression Verbal Gestural Graphic Examples of Meaning Variables

16. Meaning Test Instructions: Communicate to another person the meaning (interpersonally-shared and personal) of a presented set of stimuli, using any means of communication considered adequate. Stimuli: Street, Bicycle, Sea (ocean), to take, to kill, Telephone, etc.

17. Examples of Coded Responses

18. Meaning Profile Frequencies (proportions) of individual’s use of each meaning variable in responding to the stimuli of the meaning test.

19. Functions of Meaning • In regard to cognition • In regard to personality • In regard to states of consciousness • In regard to behavior • In regard to physiological responses

21. Cognitive contents, information Meaning values Meaning Variables and Cognition Cognitive acts, structural schemas Cognitive processes Meaning variables Meaning profiles Meaning

22. 1. Meaning Values and Cognitive Contents Meaning values correspond to cognitive contents and information. Examples: When the individual’s meaning profile shows a high frequency of the meaning dimension Locational Qualities, that individual may be expected to have a lot of labels, words, information in the domain of location, places, routes.

23. 2. Meaning Values and Cognitive Processes Cognitive processes correspond to specific meaning variables or combinations of meaning variables. Examples: Shifting from one theme to another– High frequency of referent shifts of medium degree (e.g., shifting to previous response, or to superordinate referent) Associations– High number of meaning values (absolute and especially relative), high number of different shifts of referent Abstracting–High frequency of meaning dimension Contextual Allocation

24. 3. Meaning Profiles and Cognitive Acts Cognitive acts correspond to specific combinations of meaning variables that constitute complete profiles.

25. Meaning Dimensions Contextual allocation Range of inclusion Actions Manner of operation Antecedents & causes Consequences & results Range of application Structure Quantity & numbers Locational qualities Temporal qualities Sensory qualities (-) Judgments & evaluations Types of Relation Attributive Metaphoric-symbolic (-) Forms of Relation Propositional, positive & negative Partial Conjunctive Disjunctive Shifts of Referent Close shifts: Parts, Former responses, Grammatical variations Medium shifts: Input modified by addition, Combination of several former responses Distant shifts (-) : Associations, Labels Forms of Expression Verbal, Verbal desc???? By drawings Meaning Profile of Planning

26. Further cognitive acts whose meaning profiles were identified: • Memory for verbal material / names / faces • Analogical thinking • Inventive thinking • Creativity • Exploration and curiosity • Various cognitive styles (e.g., impulsiveness vs. reflectivity, monitoring vs. blunting)

27. Meaning Variables and Personality Each personality trait corresponds to a profile of meaning variables

28. Meaning Dimensions Contextual allocation Range of inclusion Actions Results & Consequences (-) Size & dimensions Quantity & numbers Temporal qualities (-) Possessions Sensory qualities (-) (experienced by referent) Sensory qualities (of object) Judgments & evaluations (-) Types of Relation Attributive Metaphoric (-) Forms of Relation Positive Referent Shifts Associations (-) Example: Meaning profile of extraversion [Source: Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1990). The Cognitive Foundations of Personality Traits. New York: Plenum]

29. For example,There are meaning profiles corresponding to: • Leadership (Fiedler’s LPC) • Alexithymia • Narcissism • Tendency to experience anxiety • Tendency to apply different defense mechanisms, such as repression, denial, projection

30. Personal-Subjective Exemplifying-Illustrative Metaphoric-Symbolic Interpersonally-Shared Attributive Comparative Meaning Variables and States of Consciousness Two Modes of Meaning • Effects on: • Gestalt perception • Creativity • Fantasy • Logical reasoning [Source: Kreitler, S. (1999). Consciousness and meaning. In J. Singer & P. Salovey (Eds.), At Play in the Fields of Consciousness: Essays in Honor of Jerome L. Singer. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum (pp. 175-206)]

31. Training Meaning Variables Principles of the Training • Determining the meaning variables targetted for training • Training each targetted meaning variable separately • Strengthening the targetted meaning variable • Elaborating the meaning of the targetted meaning variable • Explaining the use of the targetted meaning variable

32. B. Application of the Meaning System to Assessing Meaning Profiles of Individuals in Management and Marketing

33. Administering the Meaning Test to an individual enables determining the individual’s Meaning Profile

34. Major Uses of the Meaning Profile Assessment • Evaluation of personnel • Selection of personnel • Training of personnel

35. Grasping and Comprehending Information Getting Information Meaning Profile Communicating with Others Cognitive Acts Personality Traits Personality Disposition & Emotional Tendencies

36. Correspondence between Meaning Profiles Possibility to determine to what extent an individual’s meaning profile : • Corresponds to the meaning profile of some standard, e.g., of the “good manager”, “creative manager” • Corresponds to the meaning profile of the individuals (one or more) with whom he/she is to cooperate

37. Meaning Dimensions Contextual allocation Function Manner of operation Consequences Causes (-) Domain of application State Types of Relation Attributive Comparative – Difference Exemplifying (-) Metaphoric (-) Forms of Relation Positive Partial (not universal) Conjunctive Disjunctive Normative Desired (-) Referent Shifts Close shifts Medium shifts Distant shifts (-) Meaning Profile of the “Good” Manager(based on the meaning variables common to 12 managers in different high-tech firms, evaluated by their peers and supervisors)

38. Index of Similarity in regard to Meaning Profiles: • Steps of Construction: • Determine the meaning profiles of two individuals (or one individual and “standard” profile) • Procedure A • Correlate the two profiles. The Spearman Product-Moment Coefficient yields the measure of similarity • Procedure B • For each meaning variable determine whether its score is above the group’s mean (for “positive” variables) or below (for negative variables) • Count the number of variables in the meaning profiles that are both above or below the group’s mean. The number yields a gross measure of similarity. Note. The same procedures can be applied for more than two meaning profiles

39. Preliminary findings concerning team work (High-Tech firms)

40. Selection of Personnel The meaning profile enables selecting, for the organization or for particular positions in the organization, individuals with desired tendencies in regard to cognition, personality and behavior.

41. Procedures of selection • Determineor retrieve the meaning profile corresponding to the cognitive act or personality trait or behavior of interest • Determine the individual’s meaning profile • Compute the index of similarity between the individual’s meaning profile and the meaning profile corresponding to the desired cognitive act, personality trait or behavior

42. Training of Personnel • Steps in the training procedure • Determine or retrieve the meaning profile corresponding to the cognitive, personality or behavior tendency of interest • Determine the individual’s meaning profile • Compare the individual’s meaning profile to the meaning profile of the desired tendency and determine in which meaning variables it deviates • Apply the training process with the individual in regard to the targetted meaning variables

43. C. Application of the Meaning system to Promoting Purchasing

44. Meaning Profile of the “good” purchaser Meaning of purchasing the item

45. Means for promoting purchasing: • Procedure A: Focus on the meaning profile of the “good” purchaser • Determine the meaning profile of the “good” (desired) purchaser Criteria (examples): amounts of purchasing Frequency of purchasing Range of purchasing Selectivity of purchasing • Evoke the relevant meaning variables when advertising items or presenting them on display for purchasing

46. Meaning Profile of Purchaser Displayed Item Meaning Dimension Judgments and Evaluation Buying it will stimulate positive evaluations of the purchaser

47. Procedure B: Focus on the meaning of purchasing a given set of items

48. Conclusions • The meaning system provides concepts and tools for assessing processes underlying cognitive, emotional, personality and behavior tendencies. • The major concepts are meaning units, referent, meaning value, and meaning variable. • The major tool is the Meaning Test that yields the meaning profile. • The meaning system enables improving the Evaluation, Selection and Training of personnel in management. • The meaning system provides means for promoting purchasing by focusing on the purchaser or on the meaning of the items to be purchased and of the act of purchasing.