A Review of RTI Literacy Assessment/ Monitoring Tools Jim Wright interventioncentral

1. A Review of RTI Literacy Assessment/ Monitoring ToolsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org

2. RTI Literacy: Assessment & Progress-Monitoring (Cont.) To measure student ‘response to instruction/intervention’ effectively, the RTI Literacy model measures students’ reading performance and progress on schedules matched to each student’s risk profile and intervention Tier membership. • Benchmarking/Universal Screening. All children in a grade level are assessed at least 3 times per year on a common collection of literacy assessments. • Strategic Monitoring. Students placed in Tier 2 (supplemental) reading groups are assessed 1-2 times per month to gauge their progress with this intervention. • Intensive Monitoring. Students who participate in an intensive, individualized Tier 3 reading intervention are assessed at least once per week. Source: Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools: Procedures to assure scientific-based practices. New York: Routledge.

3. Curriculum-Based Measurement: Advantages as a Set of Tools to Monitor RTI/Academic Cases • Aligns with curriculum-goals and materials • Is reliable and valid (has ‘technical adequacy’) • Is criterion-referenced: sets specific performance levels for specific tasks • Uses standard procedures to prepare materials, administer, and score • Samples student performance to give objective, observable ‘low-inference’ information about student performance • Has decision rules to help educators to interpret student data and make appropriate instructional decisions • Is efficient to implement in schools (e.g., training can be done quickly; the measures are brief and feasible for classrooms, etc.) • Provides data that can be converted into visual displays for ease of communication Source: Hosp, M.K., Hosp, J. L., & Howell, K. W. (2007). The ABCs of CBM. New York: Guilford.

5. CBM Literacy Measures: Sources • DIBELS (https://dibels.uoregon.edu/) • AimsWeb (http://www.aimsweb.com) • Easy CBM (http://www.easycbm.com) • iSteep (http://www.isteep.com) • EdCheckup (http://www.edcheckup.com) • Intervention Central (http://www.interventioncentral.org)

6. Comparison of 2 RTI Assessment/Monitoring Systems • AimsWeb • Letter Naming Fluency: Beginning K > Beginning Gr 1 • Letter Sound Fluency: Middle K > Beginning Gr 1 • Phoneme Segmentation Fluency: Middle K > Middle Gr 1 • Nonsense Word Fluency: Middle K > End Gr 1 • Oral Reading Fluency: Gr 1 > Gr 8 • Maze (Reading Comprehension Fluency): Gr 1 > Gr 8 DIBELS • Initial Sound Fluency: Preschool > Middle K • Letter Naming Fluency:Beginning K > Beginning Gr 1 • Phoneme Segmentation Fluency: Middle K > End Gr 1 • Nonsense Word Fluency: Middle K > Beginning Gr 2 • Oral Reading Fluency: Middle Gr 1 > Gr 6

7. CBM: Developing a Process to Collect Local NormsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org

8. Local Norms: Screening All Students (Stewart & Silberglit, 2008) Local norm data in basic academic skills are collected at least 3 times per year (fall, winter, spring). • Schools should consider using ‘curriculum-linked’ measures such as Curriculum-Based Measurement that will show generalized student growth in response to learning. • If possible, schools should consider avoiding ‘curriculum-locked’ measures that are tied to a single commercial instructional program. Source: Stewart, L. H. & Silberglit, B. (2008). Best practices in developing academic local norms. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 225-242). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

9. Local Norms: Using a Wide Variety of Data (Stewart & Silberglit, 2008) Local norms can be compiled using: • Fluency measures such as Curriculum-Based Measurement. • Existing data, such as office disciplinary referrals. • Computer-delivered assessments, e.g., Measures of Academic Progress (MAP) from www.nwea.org Source: Stewart, L. H. & Silberglit, B. (2008). Best practices in developing academic local norms. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 225-242). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

10. PANEL TABLES Three tables will be randomly called for each panel. TWO members of each table will come up to join panel. Each table/team will introduce selves, school and present on the high points of their discussion. After panel presentation, floor is open for audience questions and comments. ‘LISTENING’ TABLES One table will be randomly called to pose questions or share comments based on the panel presentation. RTI PANEL ACTIVITY: STRUCTURE

11. Team Activity: Draft a Plan to Conduct an Academic Screening in Your School or District Directions: • Develop a draft plan to screen your school using CBM Literacy measures 3 times per year.Use the Harn (2000) guidelines in your planning. • Record the main elements of the plan (‘preparation’, ‘initial implementation’, ‘institutionalization’, ‘ongoing development/updating’) using the RTI Rollout Planning document. • Be prepared to report out on the main elements of your plan to the large group.

12. Creating an RTI Literacy Program at Tiers 1 & 2 That is Responsive to the Needs of All StudentsJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org

13. “Risk for reading failure always involves the interaction of a particular set of child characteristics with specific characteristics of the instructional environment. Risk status is not entirely inherent in the child, but always involves a “mismatch” between child characteristics and the instruction that is provided.” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 206). “ ” Source: Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small-group instruction promote reading success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 203-212.

14. Tier 1: What Are the Recommended Elements of ‘Core Curriculum’?: More Research Needed “In essence, we now have a good beginning on the evaluation of Tier 2 and 3 interventions, but no idea about what it will take to get the core curriculum to work at Tier 1. A complicating issue with this potential line of research is that many schools use multiple materials as their core program.” p. 640 Source: Kovelski, J. F. (2007). Response to intervention: Considerations for research and systems change. School Psychology Review, 36, 638-646.

15. NYSED RTI Guidance Memo: April 2008

17. “The Regents policy framework for RtI:Defines RtI to minimally include: Appropriate instruction delivered to all students in the general education class by qualified personnel. Appropriate instruction in reading means scientific research-based reading programs that include explicit and systematic instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency (including oral reading skills) and reading comprehension strategies.”

18. “ ” “…we want to emphasize that effective interventions for almost all children highly at risk for reading disabilities should contain strongly explicit instruction in the knowledge and skills required for learning to read words accurately and fluently, and that this instruction should be balanced and integrated with explicit instruction in other language and reading skills that are also important for good reading comprehension.” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 209). Source: Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small-group instruction promote reading success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 203-212.

19. Five Big Ideas in Reading • “Phonemic Awareness: The ability to hear and manipulate sounds in words. • Alphabetic Principle: The ability to associate sounds with letters and use these sounds to form words. • Fluency with Text: The effortless, automatic ability to read words in connected text. • Vocabulary: The ability to understand (receptive) and use (expressive) words to acquire and convey meaning. • Comprehension: The complex cognitive process involving the intentional interaction between reader and text to convey meaning.” SOURCE: University of Oregon: http://reading.uoregon.edu/big_ideas/trial_bi_index.php

20. Direct / Indirect Instruction Continuum “Literature-based instruction emphasizes use of authentic literature for independent reading, read-alouds, and collaborative discussions. It stands in contrast to skills-based programs that are typically defined as traditional programs that use a commercially available basal reading program and follow a sequence of skills ordered in difficulty.” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) “less direct instruction in sound-spelling patterns embedded in trade books (embedded code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) “implicit instruction in the alphabetic principle while reading trade books (implicit code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) “direct instruction in letter-sound correspondences practices in controlled vocabulary texts (direct code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) Source: Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small-group instruction promote reading success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 203-212.

21. Balanced Literacy: A Framework for Literacy Instruction—Not a Program “Balanced literacy is an approach for teaching literacy that is widely used in classrooms across the country. It involves several methods of teaching and learning reading and writing, whole class instruction directed by the teacher with independent work in reading, writing, and oral language. By integrating a variety of approaches, a balance is achieved in which students learning to understand text (from a whole language approach) as well as how to read text (from a phonics approach).” Source: Balanced Literacy: An Overview. Promising Practices Website. Retrieved on March 20, 2009, from http://www.teachingmatters.org/literacy/guide_overview.htm

22. Guided Reading Lesson Structure “The Guided Reading lesson structure provides teachers the opportunities to monitor how well students are applying skills to reading of text, encourage and support application of skills during text reading (e.g., word level skills and comprehension skills), engage students in thinking about the meaning of text, and build a sense of reading as a meaningful, enjoyable activity.” Source: Torgesen, J. K. (2006). Overcoming early reading difficulties in Florida: Lessons from research. Retrieved from http://www.fcrr.org/science/powerpoint/torgesen/FloridaIDA.ppt

23. Guided Reading: Limitations For students who have not yet acquired ‘initial’ reading skills, guided reading fails to: • Provide “systematic instruction and practice on foundational knowledge and skills” • Give the student sufficient opportunities for “mastery oriented practice” on foundation reading skills • Include use of controlled texts that “provide good practice on early phonemic decoding skills” Source: Torgesen, J. K. (2006). Overcoming early reading difficulties in Florida: Lessons from research. Retrieved from http://www.fcrr.org/science/powerpoint/torgesen/FloridaIDA.ppt

24. I call the range of students whom [teachers] come to view as adequately responsive – i.e., teachable – as the tolerance; those who are perceived to be outside the tolerance are those for whom teachers seek additional resources. The term “tolerance” is used to indicate that teachers form a permissible boundary on their measurement (judgments) in the same sense as a confidence interval. In this case, the teacher actively measures the distribution of responsiveness in her class by processing information from a series of teaching trials and perceives some range of students as within the tolerance. (Gerber, 2002) “ ” Source: Gerber, M. M. (2003). Teachers are still the test: Limitations of response to instruction strategies for identifying children with learning disabilities. Paper presented at the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium, Kansas City, MO.

25. RTI Core Literacy Instruction: Elements Verify that the School’s Reading Program is ‘Evidence-Based’. The school has an evidence-based reading program in place for all elementary grades. • The program is tied to a well-designed literacy curriculum and may consist of one or several commercial reading-instruction products. • The program is supported by research as being effective. • Teachers implementing the reading program at their grade level can describe its effective instructional elements. Examples of websites that can help to verify the ‘evidence-based’ status of reading programs: • What Works Clearinghouse: http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/ • Florida Center for Reading Research: http://www.fcrr.org/FCRRReports/reportslist.htm

26. RTI Core Literacy Instruction: Elements Use Benchmarking/Universal Screening Data to Verify that the Current Core Reading Program is Appropriate. The school uses benchmarking/universal screening data in literacy to verify that its current reading program can effectively meet the needs of its student population at each grade level. • In grades K-2, if fewer than 80% of students are successful on phonemic awareness and alphabetics screenings, the core reading program at that grade level is patterned after direct instruction (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001). • In grades K-2, if more than 80% of students are successful on phonemic awareness and alphabetics screenings, the school may choose to adopt a reading program that provides “less direct instruction in sound-spelling patterns embedded in trade books (embedded code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 205).

27. Apply the ’80-15-5’ Rule to Determine if the Focus of the Intervention Should Be the Core Curriculum, Subgroups of Underperforming Learners, or Individual Struggling Students (T. Christ, 2008) • If less than 80% of students are successfully meeting academic or behavioral goals, the intervention focus is on the core curriculum and general student population. • If no more than 15% of students are not successful in meeting academic or behavioral goals, the intervention focus is on small-group ‘treatments’ or interventions. • If no more than 5% of students are not successful in meeting academic or behavioral goals, the intervention focus is on the individual student. Source: Christ, T. (2008). Best practices in problem analysis. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 159-176).

28. Comparison of Sunnyside & Baylor Schools: Winter Benchmarking: Gr 1 Source: DIBELS Website. Retrieved on May 8, 2007, from https://dibels.uoregon.edu/

29. Nonsense Word Fluency: 34% of students fell below ‘Deficient’ level (<30 NWF) Oral Reading Fluency: 35% of students fell below ‘Deficient’ level (<8 DORF) Phoneme SegmentationFluency: 28% of students fell below ‘Deficient’ level (<10 PSF) Sunnyside Central School District District Student Population: 986 Eligible for Free/Reduced-Price Lunch: 43% Number of Students in Grade1: 69 Winter Benchmarking: Gr 1 On all literacy screening measures, Sunnyside fell below the 80% success level: PSF: 72% ‘emerging/ established’ NWF: 66% ‘emerging/ established’ PSF: 65% ‘some risk/ low risk’

30. Nonsense Word Fluency: 9% of students fell below ‘Deficient’ level (<30 NWF) Oral Reading Fluency: 14% of students fell below ‘Deficient’ level (<8 DORF) Phoneme SegmentationFluency: 6% of students fell below ‘Deficient’ level (<10 PSF) Winter Benchmarking: Gr 1 Baylor Unified Free School District District Student Population: 1452 Eligible for Free/Reduced-Price Lunch: 6% Number of Students in Grade1: 106 On all literacy screening measures, Baylor exceeded the 80% success level: PSF: 94% ‘emerging/ established’ NWF: 91% ‘emerging/ established’ PSF: 86% ‘some risk/ low risk’

31. Winter Benchmarking: Gr 1:

32. Baylor Elementary Core Reading Program Sunnyside Elementary Core Reading Program Direct / Indirect Instruction Continuum “less direct instruction in sound-spelling patterns embedded in trade books (embedded code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) “implicit instruction in the alphabetic principle while reading trade books (implicit code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) “direct instruction in letter-sound correspondences practices in controlled vocabulary texts (direct code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) Source: What Works Clearinghouse. Retrieved April 15, 2009, from . http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/

33. “Read Naturally. Read Naturally is a fluency program designed to develop in readers the skills necessary for fluent and effortless reading: speed, accuracy and proper expression. Three strategies that figure prominently in the Read Naturally program are reading along with a fluent model, individual repeated readings of the same passage at the student’s reading level, and progress monitoring. Read Naturally may be used flexibly as a supplement to provide extra practice for young readers, for students learning the English language, and as an intervention for struggling readers. Students of any age may use this program…the strategies within the Read Naturally program have been shown by scientific research to be effective for improving students’ reading fluency..” (FCRR, 2009) Direct / Indirect Instruction Continuum “direct instruction in letter-sound correspondences practices in controlled vocabulary texts (direct code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) “less direct instruction in sound-spelling patterns embedded in trade books (embedded code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) “implicit instruction in the alphabetic principle while reading trade books (implicit code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) Sources: Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small-group instruction promote reading success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 203-212.Florida Center for Reading Research. Retried on April 15, 2009 from http://www.fcrr.org

34. “Little Books. The Little Books are a set of books designed for interactive book reading between parents and children or teachers and students. The books use thematic topics familiar to children. They are written with high-frequency words and use simple phrases and sentences. They also have strong links between illustrations and text. Little Books was found to have potentially positive effects on general reading achievement.” What Works Clearinghouse (2009). Direct / Indirect Instruction Continuum “direct instruction in letter-sound correspondences practices in controlled vocabulary texts (direct code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) “less direct instruction in sound-spelling patterns embedded in trade books (embedded code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) “implicit instruction in the alphabetic principle while reading trade books (implicit code)” (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; p. 204) Sources: Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small-group instruction promote reading success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 203-212.What Works Clearinghouse. Retrieved April 15, 2009, from . http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/

35. RTI Core Literacy Instruction: Elements Establish a Breadth of Instructional Expertise in Reading. Teachers are knowledgeable about the causes of reading delays. They understand that the most common explanation for deficiencies in foundation reading skills for students entering kindergarten is that—prior to public school—those delayed students did not have the same exposure to spoken vocabulary, phonemic awareness activities, and print as did their more advanced classmates. Classroom teachers have the instructional expertise to teach children whose reading skills are up to 2 years below those of their classmates.

36. RTI Core Literacy Instruction: Elements Adopt Efficient Methods of Instructional Delivery and Time Management. The teacher uses an appropriate range of efficient instructional delivery and time-management methods to match student readers to effective learning activities. Examples include: • reading centers (Kosanovich et al., n.d.) • using students as peer tutors (e.g. Mathes et al., 2003) • incorporating paraprofessionals (Foorman, Breier, & Fletcher, 2003), adult volunteer tutors, or other non-instructional personnel under teacher supervision to review and reinforce student reading skills • scheduling core literacy instruction at the same time for each grade level to allow students to access reading instruction across classrooms as needed (cf. Burns & Gibbons, 2008).

37. “The most effective early intervention is prevention—in the form of differentiated classroom instruction. Many techniques and programs exist for helping classroom teachers with small-group instruction, such as classwide peer tutoring…and cooperative grouping. But one of the persistent problems of differentiated classroom instruction is how to engage classroom teachers in continuous progress monitoring and translating the results of assessment to differentiated instruction.” (Foorman & Moats, 2004; p. 54). “ ” Source: Foorman, B. R., & Moats, L. C. (2004). Conditions for sustaining research-based practices in early reading instruction. Remedial & Special Education, 25, 51-60.

38. Building Tier 1 Capacity in the Teaching of Reading: Example of Differentiating Instruction In grades K-3, teachers can differentiate instruction for children during the block of ‘core literacy instruction’ through flexible small-group instruction. • Reading centers are set up in the classroom, at which students might work in groups, in pairs, or individually. • These centers might be designed for students to access independently or to be teacher-led. • Group sizes can range from 3-5 for ‘struggling students’ up to 5-7 for those students who are on grade level. Source: Kosanovich, M., Ladinsky, K., Nelson, L., & Torgesen, J. (n.d.). Differentiated reading instruction: Small group alternative lesson structures for all students. Florida Center for Reading Research. Retrieved on November 5, 2008, from http://www.fcrr.org/assessment/pdf/smallGroupAlternativeLessonStructures.pdf

39. Building Tier 1 Capacity in the Teaching of Reading: Example of Differentiating Instruction (Cont.) Reading center activities can include guided reading and skills-focused lessons. • ‘Guided reading’ activities provide more general reading instruction. The teacher guides a group discussion of the text (e.g., selection of the text, introducing the text to students, talking about the content of the text, providing instruction in ‘strategic strategies’ to better access the text, etc.). • ‘Skills-focused’ lessons provide specific, focused instruction and practice in crucial reading skills (e.g., letter-sound correspondence, phoneme segmentation). Students with similar reading deficits are placed in specific skills-focused groups to allow targeted interventions. Source: Kosanovich, M., Ladinsky, K., Nelson, L., & Torgesen, J. (n.d.). Differentiated reading instruction: Small group alternative lesson structures for all students. Florida Center for Reading Research. Retrieved on November 5, 2008, from http://www.fcrr.org/assessment/pdf/smallGroupAlternativeLessonStructures.pdf

40. Building Tier 1 Capacity in the Teaching of Reading: Example of Differentiating Instruction (Cont.) The teacher determines the composition and instructional activities to be used in reading centers via ongoing reading assessment information (e.g., DIBELS progress-monitoring data, classroom observations, etc.). • The teacher creates a master ‘reading center’ schedule ( a series of teacher-led and independent reading centers to accommodate all students in the classroom). • Recruitment for reading centers is flexible: Children are assigned to specific reading centers based on their reading profile. Those center assignments are regularly updated based on classroom reading assessment data. Source: Kosanovich, M., Ladinsky, K., Nelson, L., & Torgesen, J. (n.d.). Differentiated reading instruction: Small group alternative lesson structures for all students. Florida Center for Reading Research. Retrieved on November 5, 2008, from http://www.fcrr.org/assessment/pdf/smallGroupAlternativeLessonStructures.pdf

41. Using Peer Tutors as Vehicle for Instructional Delivery: PALS “Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) is a peer-tutoring program. According to the developer's website, it is designed to be incorporated into the existing curriculum with the goal of improving the academic performance of children with diverse academic needs. Teachers train students to use PALS procedures. Students partner with peers, alternating the role of tutor while reading aloud, listening, and providing feedback in various structured activities. PALS is typically implemented three times a week for 30 to 35 minutes. Although PALS can be used in different subject areas and grade levels, this intervention report focuses on the use of PALS to improve reading skills of students in kindergarten through third grade.” Source: What Works Clearinghouse. Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS). Retrieved on May 8, 2007, from https://dibels.uoregon.edu/

42. Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) Research Findings “PALS was found to have potentially positive effects on alphabetics, fluency, and comprehension.” Source: What Works Clearinghouse. Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS). Retrieved on May 8, 2007, from https://dibels.uoregon.edu/

43. RTI Core Literacy Instruction: Elements Mass Resources for Focused Literacy Instruction & Intervention in the Primary Grades. The school organizes its resources to provide the most intensive general-education literacy instruction and intervention support at the early grades – Grades K through 2—because research suggests that student reading deficits can be addressed in these primary grades with far less effort and with better outcomes than for students whose reading deficits are addressed in later grades (Foorman, Breier, & Fletcher, 2003),.

44. RTI Core Literacy Instruction: Elements Avoid Use of Less Effective Reading Instructional Strategies. Classrooms make minimal use of inefficient instructional reading activities such as Round Robin Reading that can result in poor modeling of text reading and reduced rates of actual student reading engagement--and may also cause emotional distress for poor readers (Ash, Kuhn, & Walpole, 2009; Ivey, 1999). Furthermore, the school has a clear and shared understanding that purposeful, focused reading interventions are required to help struggling readers: The passive strategy of grade-retention has not been shown to be an effective means of reading intervention (Foorman, Breier, & Fletcher, 2003),

45. “Children’s status as readers is established early… Torgesen et al. (1997) showed that over 8 of 10 children with severe word reading problems at the end of the first grade performed below the average at the beginning of the third grade. Such evidence supports the view that early reading problems are the result of deficits rather than delay. In other words, the early childhood mantra “Just wait; they’ll catch up” has no empirical basis.” (Foorman, Breier, & Fletcher, 2003; p. 626) “ ” Source: Foorman, B. R., Breier, J. Il, & Fletcher, J. M. (2003). Interventions aimed at improving reading success: An evidence-based approach. Developmental Neuropsychology, 24, 613-639.

46. RTI Core Literacy Instruction: Elements Adopt Evidence-Based Tier 2 (Supplemental) Reading Interventions for Struggling Students. The school has a range of evidence-based Tier 2 intervention options for those students who fail to respond adequately to classroom literacy instruction alone. Group-based Tier 2 interventions are capped at 7 students, and all children in those groups have the same general intervention need (Burns & Gibbons, 2008). Tier 2 instruction is more explicit (e.g., contains more direct-instruction elements), intensive (e.g., more teacher attention), and supportive (e.g., timely performance feedback, praise, and encouragement) than the reading instruction that all children receive (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001).

47. RTI Core Literacy Instruction: Elements Promote Ongoing Professional Development. The school supports teachers with professional development as they implement any reading program (Foorman, Breier, & Fletcher, 2003). Training addresses such key topics as: • understanding the underlying research, instructional objectives, and components of the program • managing the classroom during reading activities, • moving at an appropriate instructional pace • grouping students.

48. References • Ash, G. E., Kuhn, M. R., & Walpole, S. (2009). Analyzing “inconsistencies” in practice: Teachers' continued use of round robin reading. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 25, 87-103. • Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools: Procedures to assure scientific-based practices. New York: Routledge. • Foorman, B. R., Breier, J. Il, & Fletcher, J. M. (2003). Interventions aimed at improving reading success: An evidence-based approach. Developmental Neuropsychology, 24, 613-639. • Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small-group instruction promote reading success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 203-212. • Ivey, G. (1999). A multicase study in the middle school: Complexities among young adolescent readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 34, 172-192. • Kosanovich, M., Ladinsky, K., Nelson, L., & Torgesen, J. (n.d.). Differentiated reading instruction: Small group alternative lesson structures for all students. Florida Center for Reading Research. Retrieved on November 5, 2008, from http://www.fcrr.org/assessment/pdf/smallGroupAlternativeLessonStructures.pdf • Mathes, P. G., Torgesen, J. K., Clancy-Menchetti, J., Santi, K., Nicholas, K., Robinson, C., Grek, M. (2003). A comparison of teacher-directed versus peer-assisted instruction to struggling first-grade readers. The Elementary School Journal, 103(5), 459–479.

49. Discussion Activity: What is Your School’s Capacity to… Use Benchmarking/Universal Screening Data to Verify that the Current Core Reading Program is Appropriate?

50. Discussion Activity: What is Your School’s Capacity to…Establish a Breadth of Instructional Expertise in Reading?