Nigeria

1. Nigeria

2. Nigeria • Most populous country in Africa, about 135 million. • Pervasive “national question” • Over 2.3% growth rate • Official language: English • Size of CA/NV/AZ combined • One of least homogenous countries in world (#129, US is #82). 250 ethnic groups • Urban areas highly sophisticated • Major oil producer, US gets 25% of its oil here. Another rentier state! • Country has $40B debt • Official Language: English • Literacy Rate: Male: 75.7% Female: 60.6% • Life expectancy: 51 years • 5.66 children per woman • GDP per capita: $1,500 • Ruled for longer by soldiers than government • Environmentalist/activist Ken Saro-Wiwa killed in 1995 • 2/3rds actually vote

3. Nigerian Leaders • James Wilson Robertson 15 Jun 1955 - 16 Nov 1960 • Benjamin NnamdiAzikiwe 1 Oct 1960 - 1 Oct 1963 • Benjamin NnamdiAzikiwe 1 Oct 1963 - 16 Jan 1966 • Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi 16 Jan 1966 - 29 Jul 1966 military • Yakubu Gowon 1 Aug 1966 - 29 Jul 1975 military • Murtala Ramat Mohammed 29 Jul 1975 - 13 Feb 1976 military • OlusegunObasanjo 14 Feb 1976 - 1 Oct 1979 military • ShehuShagari 1 Oct 1979 - 31 Dec 1983 • MuhammaduBuhari 31 Dec 1983 - 27 Aug 1985 military • Ibrahim Babangida 27 Aug 1985 - 4 Jan 1993 military • Ibrahim Babangida 4 Jan 1993 - 26 Aug 1993 military • Ernest Shonekan 26 Aug 1993 - 17 Nov 1993 • SaniAbacha 17 Nov 1993 - 8 Jun 1998 military • AbdulsalamAbubakar 9 Jun 1998 - 29 May 1999 military • OlusegunObasanjo 29 May 1999-29 May 2007 • Umaru Musa Yar'Adua 29 May 2007 - present

4. 250 Different Tribal Groups • Hausa-Falani: northern Nigeria Muslims • Yoruba: Southwest, 50% Christian, 50% Muslim • Igbo: SE Nigerian Catholics • Overall: 50% Muslim, 40% Christian 10% Catholic • NW and NE are Muslim

5. History to Independence • Precolonial: trade connections via Niger, kinship based politics, complex political identities in many groups, democratic accountability early on • Colonized by UK: authoritarian rule by chiefs only accountable to UK. Led to chiefs becoming individualistic, spread of Christianity, ethnic politics • 1833: Slave trade abolished • 1861: British consulate, Lagos • 1886: Royal Niger Company. By 1893, protectorate over Yoruba. 1900—all • British introduce education, only in South, leads to northerners being perceived as “backwards” • 1946-47: Richards Constitution calls for central legislature + 3 regional houses • 1951: 2nd (MacPherson) Constitution • 1954: 3rd (Lyttleton) Constitution: Federation • Independence October 1, 1960 (UK)

6. Themes after Independence • Parliamentary-style government replaced by Presidential system • Intensification of ethnic conflict • Military rule; Biafra civil war ended in the Igbo not seceding • Personalized rule and corruption • Federalism (but didn’t work under authoritarian military leaders) • Economic dependence on oil

7. History after Independence • 1960-66: 1st Republic. Balewa PM, assassinated in 1966. Ironsi replaces. Assassinated. Gowon becomes PM. • 1966-70: Civil War (eastern Igbo region failed in secession bid) • 1970-79: No stable regimes, Gowon gone in ’75, replaced by Muhammed. Obasanjo takes over in 1976. • 1979-83: 2nd Republic, Shagari elected. • 1983: Shagari overthrown • 1985-93: Babangida rule; fail to create 3rd Republic, resigned • 1993-98: Sani Abacha leads coup & military dictatorship • 1999: 4th Republic, Obasanjo elected President • 2003: Obasanjo reelected

8. History • Rocketing oil prices provided the Nigerian government with a chance to go on a spending spree of reckless proportions and the country quickly became a hotbed of foreigners rushing to Nigeria with their dash (bribe) money. • By the early 1980s the world recession sent oil prices plummeting again and plunged Nigeria into a cycle of massive debt, soaring inflation, large-scale unemployment and widespread corruption. In 1993 the country came under the iron-fisted rule of General Abacha. • Obasanjo had consolidated Nigeria's position as West Africa's political heavyweight and a key player in the Commonwealth, but the country was still beset by ethnic and religious violence, especially in Lagos, the Central Plateau and the southern oilfields • The Nigerian Constitution, the one promulgated on May 29, 1999 and currently in operation is, like its predecessors (1960, 1963, 1979, 1989, 1995), a very bulky document, a product of efforts by the ruling blocs to accommodate all their major factions. • The Abdulsalami Abubakar regime bequeathed the present 1999 Constitution which was largely drafted by a few hand-picked persons. • In presidential elections in April 2003 Obasanjo claimed an overwhelming victory, although independent observers expressed reservations over irregularities and intimidation.

9. The 1st Republic • Modeled after UK system with American components • House of Representatives acted like CommonsPM and Cabinet • Senate (like Lords, had tribal chiefs) • 3 things like America: 1) Federation 2) Written Constitution 3)Supreme court could review laws • Was British Commonwealth member, changed to Republic in 1963, President is now head of state

10. 2nd Republic (1979)/3rd Republic (1992)/4th Republic (1999) • #2: • Successful Presidential candidate must win a majority of the popular vote with at least 255 of the vote in 12 of 19 states • Dissolved in 1983 coup: Buhari banned political party activity, dissolved legislature • Babangida takes over 1985, continues policies, but plans for return to civil rule. • #3: • 19 states become 30, National Assembly and Senate elected 1992 with new constitution. • 1993: Presidential election. Abiola wins, election result nullified. • 4th republic—1999, Obasanjo wins • Obasnajo reelected oi 2004, about 12 candidates killed in elections for Parliament in 2003.

11. Nigerian Executive Branch • President: Head of state AND Head of Government. • 4 yr term according to Constitution (2 max) • Elections June 1993, June 1995, won by Abiola (then put in Abacha’s jail), better elections since then • Rules under a system of patrimonialism—President is the head of an extensive patron-client system. But impulse towards democracy was stronger than clientelism under Generals. We don’t know what will happen under civilian leadership. • Cabinet members must come from all of the 36 states. • There is a vice-president elected on same ticket • Leads bloated, corrupt bureaucracy (British had developed system and let Nigerians take lower jobs) • Many Nigerian government agencies are actually para-statels, corporations owned by the state and designated to provide commercial and social welfare services (water, electricity, public transportation, steel, defense, petroleum). • Result is actually “state corporatism”

12. 2007 Presidential Election • UmaruYar'Adua was picked by Obasanjo to lead his People's Democratic Party ticket with Goodluck Jonathan as VP • The opposition All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP) chose MuhammaduBuhari • Yar’Adua won elections; domestic and international observers said the elections were deeply flawed. • Yar'Adua/Jonathan have been battling a crisis of legitimacy since the vote.

13. Nigerian Legislative Branch • The legislative branch is also known as the "National Assembly". This branch can further be divided into: • THE SENATE • This is the upper house of the national assembly. • The head of the senate is referred to as the "Senate President". • THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES • This is the lower house of the national assembly. • The head of the house of representatives is referred to as the "Speaker of the House". • The second in command is referred to as the "Deputy Speaker of the House". • Their main role is to make the laws of the country. In a democracy, they would be voted into office. • House of Representatives (360): single member district representation • Senate (109): 36 states, 3 per state (districts)+ 1 capital territory member • Both serve 4 year terms • Passes laws just like US • President of the SenateDavid Mark 2007–present • Speaker of the House of RepresentativesDimejiBankole 2007–present

15. Nigerian Judiciary and State Gov. • Supreme Court is highest court • Also Courts of Appeal • State courts have both too (like US) • Both have judicial review power • But northern Muslim areas have shari’a courts as well • In February 2001, the Federal government asked the Supreme Court to take charge of oil revenues and institute “revenue sharing” • States have popularly elected Governors that serve 4 yr terms and serve with unicameral State House of Assembly

16. Nigerian Political Culture • Kleptocratic regime—based on corruption, mismanagement, criminalized society, theft and stealing rampant. People are skeptical, hate politicians • Patron-clientelism (prebendalism or “personal fiefdoms”): practice of exchanging political and economic favors between political clients and lesser elites, generally by ethnicity and religion • Tension between modernity and tradition • Underdeveloped civil society. State controls almost all aspects of life • Fragmented and polarized—masses illiterate, elite sophisticated, all identify as Nigerians, yet trade organizations all linked to parties • Pro-democracy but pro-Army: Looms large even during civilian administration, often seen as efficient and capable vis-à-vis politicians • Limited role for women (6.4% in House); but women influential in homes • Elections not free/fair; ‘93 elections declared invalid by loser • Media freedom increasing during 4th Republic (after 1999). Radio #1. • Bureaucracy small and corrupt but improving • Cleavages: Ethnicity, religion, region (Muslim north, Christian west and east), urban/rural, social class. Language a big barrier.

17. Nigerian Political Parties • 2 parties: • People’s Democratic Party (PDP): Obasanjo’s party (Christian, Yoruba, but won elections everywhere) • All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP): Led by former General Muhammadu Buhari (Muslim) with running mate Chuba Okadigbo (Igbo Catholic) • Obasanjo received over 60% of popular vote in 1999 and 2003. Buhari got 32% in 2003. • Only 5 other small parties--parties had to qualify for the legislative and presidential elections by earning at least % in 2/3rds of states in local elections.

18. Nigerian Interest Groups • Christian Association of Nigeria—protested furiously when Babangida made Nigeria a full member in the Organization of the Islamic Conference • Labor Unions: Independent, politically powerful. Challenged governments, so Babangida limited their influence through corporatism (government approved interest groups that provide feedback to government). Only Babangida-approved candidates could be elected as labor leaders • Business: Associations for manufacturers, butchers, doctors, and lawyers. Promoted economic reform. • Human rights groups • To stay in power, leaders frequently set up “loyalty pyramids” where senior government officials are supported by a broader base of loyal junior officials

19. The Niger Delta and Royal Dutch Shell • The Niger Delta, the delta of the Niger River in Nigeria, is a densely populated region sometimes called the Oil Rivers because it was once a major producer of palm oil. The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate. • Nigeria is Africa's biggest petroleum producer • The delta system is highly threatened by oil spills and other consequences of oil exploration. Other threats include coastal urbanization, industrialization, domestic and industrial waste discharges, coastal erosion, problems associated with aquaculture, and crowding out of native species by the invasive water hyacinth • The "Royal Dutch/Shell Group," commonly known as Shell, is an amalgam of over 1,700 companies all over the world. Shell includes companies like Shell Petroleum of the USA, Shell Nigeria, Shell Argentina, Shell South Africa, etc. Shell Nigeria is one of the largest oil producers in the Royal Dutch/Shell Group. 80% of the oil extraction in Nigeria is the Niger Delta, the southeast region of the country. The Delta is home to many small minority ethnic groups, including the Ogoni, all of which suffer egregious exploitation by multinational oil companies, like Shell. Shell provided over 50% of the income keeping the Nigerian dictatorship in power.

20. MEND • The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta ("MEND") is one of the largest militant groups in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The organization claims to expose exploitation and oppression of the people of the Niger Delta and devastation of the natural environment by public-private partnerships between the Federal Government of Nigeria and corporations involved in the extraction of oil in the Niger Delta. The Economist has described the organization as one that "portrays itself as political organisation that wants a greater share of Nigeria’s oil revenues to go to the impoverished region that sits atop the oil. In fact, it is more of an umbrella organisation for several armed groups, which it sometimes pays in cash or guns to launch attacks."[1] MEND has been linked to attacks on petroleum operations in Nigeria as part of the Conflict in the Niger Delta, engaging in actions including sabotage, theft, property destruction, guerrilla warfare, and kidnapping.[2]

21. Nigerian Foreign Policy • US-Nigeria fairly good relations since 1960 • Bad infrastructure doomed Nigeria by late 1960s: no investmentdeteriorationeconomiccollapsepolitical instability • Oil makes it a global level power • Then 1970s oil boom led to 1980s debt • Center of drug trade/drug traffic—US needs cooperation • Very key regional player (OAU: Organization of African Unity) • Wants help with HIV/AIDS • Regional instability in Liberia and Sierra Leone mitigated by ECOWAS, may help • 1985: Babangida regime developed an economic structural adjustment program with help from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank (Int’l Bank for Reconstruction and Development)—sought to restructure and diversify the Nigerian economy. • Government pledged to privatize para-statels • Shock treatment has had mixed effects, debt has been restructured several times,large national debt still a big problem

22. Learning Objectives After mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to: • Understand the essential moments of the historical formation of the Nigerian state. • Recognize the importance of complex ethnic, religious and political challenges in understanding the Nigerian political system. Define the following: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, Yoruba • Discuss the evolution of Nigerian politics. • Comprehend the importance of colonialism and the impact of British Empire in Nigeria. • Discuss the role of political parties in the process of Nigerian fight for independence. Recognize the key roles of the following parties: Nigerian National Democratic Party, Nigerian Youth Movement, Northern People’s Congress, Northern Elements Progressive Union, United Middle Belt Congress, The Action Group • Comprehend the impact of the Nigerian regimes and leaders on the development of Nigeria since independence.

23. Learning Objectives After mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to: • Understand the evolution of Nigerian Republic in 20th century and define key elements of the First, Second, Third and Fourth Republics in Nigeria. Briefly define the following: National Party of Nigeria, United Party of Nigeria, Nigerian People’s Party, People’s Redemption Party • Recognize the role of military regimes in Nigerian history and discuss the role of the following leaders and institutions: General AguiyiIronsi, Supreme Military Command (Armed Forces Party Council), Federal Executive Council, National Republican Convention, Social Democratic Party, Lieutenant Colonel Yakubu Gowon, General MurtalaMuhammed, Lieutenant General OlusegunObasanjo, General SaniAbacha • Understand the process of political, economic and social developments in contemporary Nigeria. • Discuss the key elements of Iranian state institutions

24. Learning Objectives After mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to: • Understand the specifications of Nigerian political culture and participation. • Discuss the role of ethnic tensions, including violent conflicts, in the process of contemporary development of the Nigerian state. • Define the essence of Nigerian electoral participation and electoral challenges. • Understand the degree and complexity of the level of corruption in Nigerian political and social systems. • Comprehend the role of political parties in Nigeria. • Recognize the challenges of Nigerian federalism. • Define the current paradox of the economic situation in Nigeria. • Understand the challenges of democratization in Nigeria. • Comprehend the challenging process of the development of Nigerian state and the potentials of survival of the Nigerian Fourth Republic under President UmaruYar’Adua.