The Prosocialization of Children from Toddlerhood Through Adolescence

1. The Prosocialization of Children from Toddlerhood Through Adolescence Daniela Owen SUNY Stony Brook November 23, 2004

2. Religious Philosophical Theoretical Psychoanalytic Behavioristic and Social Learning Theory Cognitive Empirical Biological Cultural Social Origins of Prosocialization Theory

3. Definition: Voluntary behavior intended to benefit another. Including: Emotional responding (i.e., empathy, sympathy, personal distress) Moral reasoning Altruism Prosocial behavior is important to the quality of social interactions Prosocial Behavior

4. Egoistic Will benefit you in some way in the long run Other-oriented Understand and care about the well-being of others Practical Concerns e.g., If I do not help my student who is choking, she may die. Morality Altruism Reasons for Performing Prosocial Behavior

5. Altruism is a sub-category of moral prosocial behaviors Definition: “Intrinsically motivated voluntary behavior intended to benefit another: acts motivated by internal motives such as concern for others or by internalized values, goals and self-rewards or the avoidance of punishment” (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989). Altruism

6. Empathy – “An affective response that stems from the apprehension or comprehension of another’s emotional state or condition and that is identical or very similar to what the other person is feeling or would be expected to feel” (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998). E.g., Feeling extreme sorrow at the death of a best friend’s relative. Vicarious emotional responses

7. Sympathy – “An affective response that frequently stems from empathy (but can derive directly from perspective taking or other cognitive processing), and consists of feelings of sorrow or concern for the distressed or needy other (rather than the same emotion as the other person)” (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998). E.g., Feeling badly for a friend whose boyfriend cheated on her. Vicarious Emotional Responses cont.

8. Personal Distress – a self-focused, aversive emotional reaction to the vicarious experiencing of another’s emotion, stemming from exposure to another’s emotional state or condition (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998). E.g., Feeling anxiety when driving your nervous boyfriend to the testing site to go take his GRE. Vicarious Emotional Responses cont.

9. Philosophical Beliefs About Prosocial Behaviors NEUTRAL

10. Psychoanalytic Once children develop a superego they can act prosocially because of guilt (conscience) or based on internalization of values consistent with prosocial behavior (Freud). Prosocial actions are the defense mechanisms of the ego used to deal with the superego. Reaction formation (2 part process) Primary = fondness for parents because they meet needs Secondary = conceal or control avarice towards parents Empathy (learned from mother) Identification (internalization of parental norms, values, and standards) Theories of Prosocial Behavior

11. Behaviorism and Social Learning Thoughts, behaviors and the environment all interact to influence moral behavior Person’s attention and regulation play a role in the learning of moral behavior Ways of learning prosocial behavior Reward and punishment elicit prosocial behavior through reinforcement/extinction Empathy develops through conditioning May only function for basic emotions (i.e., happy, sad, fearful), not more complex emotions (i.e., jealousy). Imitation of a variety of social sources (Bandura, 1986) Theories of Prosocial Behavior, cont.

12. Cognitive Piaget Kohlberg Stages of moral development progress as a function of socio-cognitive development Each new level replaces and reorganizes structures of lower levels Perspective taking results from emotion and socialization Other-oriented prosocial behavior does not emerge until school years Theories of Prosocial Behavior, cont.

13. Controversy about whether or not humans are biologically predisposed towards positive other-oriented emotions (i.e., empathy, sympathy, etc.) Infants cry in response to hearing other infants cry (Martin & Clark, 1982). But they do not cry in response to hearing own self crying. Animals help and share with one another (Wilson, 1978). Innate Bias Towards Prosocialization?

14. Plomin et al. (1993) found no evidence for genetic influence on change in empathy ratings in babies 14 to 20 months, although genetic factors may have an influence on the stability of empathy over time. Probably due to sharing only with those likely to be one’s relatives, or those who will help you as well. There is thus an evolutionary advantage to sharing. Heritability may also be a factor There could be an underlying trait for this mechanism Wachs (1994) suggests that the role of biology in the development of prosocial behavior is probablistic rather than deterministic. Innate Bias Towards Prosocialization? Cont.

15. Little research on this Findings from lab studies suggest that children from traditional rural and agricultural communities and traditional ethnicities, are more cooperative than children from urban or Westernized cultures (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989). Adaptation of values systems meet physical environment needs Kibbutz adults are more helpful than adults who not raised on a kibbutz (Yinon, Sharon, Azgad, & Barshir, 1981). Differences in achievement of the same ethnic group arise based on differences in geography and environment Book: Guns, Germs, and Steal (Jared Diamond) Cultural Factors

16. Characteristics of prosocial cultures: Live with extended family Female role important (economic contribution) Work less specialized Government less centralized Early assignment of chores (young children) Responsible for the welfare of the family, group, class, society In Japanese and Chinese classes privileges of students depend on group not individual accomplishments (Heishima & Schneider, 1994; Stevenson, 1991). Movie: Preschool in Three Cultures (China, Japan, U.S.) However the prosocial moral reasoning of children from different cultures and locations (urban to rural) is quite similar Cultural Factors, cont.

17. Inductions (with emotionally charged explanations of moral beh.) Discipline Reward prosocial behaviors, punish antisocial behaviors Level of punitiveness Modeling Learning by doing Ways of Teaching Childrento Act Prosocially

18. Inductions Giving a child reasoning or explanations for why to behave prosocially Induce optimal level of arousal for learning Not arbitrary (therefore will not lead to resistance) Internalized (child processes actively) Comes from Psychoanalytic theory Focus is on child and action rather than parent Focus on the consequences of child behavior on parent or other involved Related to prosocial behavior in toddlers (2-3 years) (Zahn-Waxler, et al., 1979; Miller et al., 1989) Willingness to comply goes in both directions (parent to child & child to parent) Prosocialization Techniques

19. Punishment Power-assertive techniques (physical, threat, deprivation) Excessive and arbitrary demands and expectations Reward Mixed support for this Bad if behavior contingent on reward or a material reward given in terms of long-term effects because when reward not present, non-prosocial behavior Good in immediate context, especially with praise (about child’s dispositional goodness), thanks, or positive other response Different Disciplinary Techniques

20. Has been shown to be effective in lab experiments Children who view generous models are more generous and helpful themselves as compared to controls Multiple models are more effective than one model Many experimenters have found effects days or months after child viewed generous model Especially when combined with rehearsal, positive reinforcement, or with internal self-attributions Modeling Prosocial Behaviors

21. Parental emotion-related socialization linked to children’s empathic responding (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998) Moderate exposure to other’s sadness, tension, and fear with constructive coping techniques from parents enhances other-oriented prosocial responding. Personality and temperament Attachment What Else Leads to Prosocial Behaviors?

22. With teachers’ request Authority and punishment-related reasons for compliance With peers’ request Other-oriented or relational motives (Eisenberg, Lundy, Shell, & Roth, 1985). Little is known about the relation for older children Reasons for Prosocial Responding in School Aged Children

23. Cognitive ability has been posited to underlie the capacity of children to respond prosocially Children must be able to first identify the situation in which to act prosocially Intelligence is associated with certain types of prosocial responding in terms of quality, not quantity Capable of perspective taking to understand the emotional and cognitive state of another person perceptual, affective, and conceptual (cognitive) Motivation to respond when identifying another’s perspective Children who are more mature with respect to perspective taking are more likely to be in more situations in which it would be appropriate to respond prosocially Cognitive Correlates of Prosocial Development

24. Sympathy and sometimes empathy are related to positive prosocial responding, while personal distress is negatively associated with prosocial responding. More evidence within contexts than across contexts However, children with a sympathetic disposition are more prosocial Sympathy may be moderated by dispositional perspective taking (Knight et al. 1994) and moral reasoning (Miller et al., 1996). Emotional Responding

25. Consistent responding over time related to personality and dispositional type Social competence is associated with sympathy and empathy, while aggression, delinquency, competitiveness, and acting-out are not Children who act prosocially usually have a positive self-concept (e.g., Larrieu & Mussen, 1987) whereas children who fear disapproval may not act prosocially if they are not positive it will draw approval Prosocial behavior is correlated with moral functioning (other-oriented goals, social responsibility, integrative concern, and guilt) Especially in older children and adolescents who view themselves as moral and value their morality. Prosocial children are well-regulated and low in impulsivity (Block & Block, 1973) Personality and Prosocial Behavior

26. Cost undermines young children’s prosocial behavior more than older children Older children recognize non-immediate gains of helping others More likely to help someone who helped them or is likely to reciprocate in the future Likely to help people who will clearly benefit This tendency has been shown to increase with age (Ladd et al., 1983) (may be due to greater recognition) Likelihood of Prosocial Behavior for Children

27. Less helpful or generous if in a bad mood, just failed at something, or are thinking about sad things Don’t help when feel incompetent or incapable Help more in situations with which they have prior experience More likely to help someone they like Help strangers if seeking approval or new friendships Likelihood of Prosocial Behavior for Children, cont.

28. Hoffman (1982) – 4 levels of feelings resulting from vicarious affect leading to prosocial behavior Stage 1 – infancy – empathic distress Develops before a sense of separation between self and others i.e. Crying when another baby cries, imitation of smiling During first year of life infants are unable to differentiate between own distress and global distress Seek comfort for self in situation of distress Developmental Theory

29. Stage 2 – age 1-2 years – egocentric empathy Children can distinguish self from others physically, but not internally Respond to distress of others in ways that are comforting to themselves i.e., seek own mother to help/comfort another child Attempts show appropriate empathic affect but not mature understanding of difference between self and other Hoffman’s model

30. Stage 3 – toddlers & young children – perspective taking Aware that emotions of others are independent of and may be different from own Empathize with a wider array of emotions Can be aroused by information about another’s emotion as well as viewing the emotion Prosocial response reflects an awareness of other’s individual needs Restricted to immediate, transitory, and situation-specific distress Hoffman’s model

31. Stage 4 – late childhood, early adolescence- mature empathy Empathize with general condition of others Comprehend and respond to needs of an entire group or class of people Aware of other people’s continuing existence, therefore can respond to needs that other’s will have in the future Hoffman’s model

32. Completed by Fabes and Eisenberg, 1996 Significant, positive effect size for age differences in prosocial behavior Thus as children get older, prosocial behavior occurs more frequently True for both genders and all races/ethnicities Conducted with a community sample (normative) Findings are not always consistent and may vary contextually, but overall pattern exists Meta-Analysis of Prosocial Behavior

33. Children’s responses to others become more accurate with age and experience (Black, Weinstein, & Tanur, 1980) Older children weigh cost to self less than younger children (Eisenberg, 1986) Younger children are less aware of benefits to others (Lourenco, 1990, 1993) Quality of helping improves with age (e.g., Eisenberg, 1986) Older children are cognitively more mature Explanations for Outcomes

34. Helping Behavior Generosity Caring for others Understanding the emotional states of others Emotional expression Adaptive social functioning Prosocialization is the Development of:

35. The mechanisms involved in prosocial behavior not understood fully, but probably involve the interplay of cognitive, social, emotional, biological, and environmental factors Need to study moderators that effect prosocial behavior in addition to factors that cause or increase likelihood of prosocial responding Summary

36. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Black, C.R., Weinstein, E.A., & Tanur, J.M. (1980). Development of expectations altruism versus self-interest. Journal of Social Psychology, 111, 105-112. Block, J., & Block, J.H. (1973, January). Ego development and the provenance of thought: A longitudinal study of ego and cognitive development in young children. Progress report for the National Institute of Mental Health. (Grant No. MH16080). Eisenberg, N. (1986). Altruistic emotion, cognition, and behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Eisenberg, N. & Fabes, R.A. (1998). Prosocial Development. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.) Handbook of Child Psychology, Fifth Edition. Volume 3: Social, Emotional, and Personality Development (pp. 701-778). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Eisenberg, N., Lundy, N., Shell, R., & Roth, K. (1985). Children’s justifications for their adult and peer-direct compliant (prosocial and nonprosocial) behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 21, 325-331. Eisenberg, N., & Mussen, P. (!989). The roots of prosocial behavior in children. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Hieshima, J.A., & Schneider, B. (1994). Intergenerational effects on the cultural and cognitive socialization of third- and fourth-generation Japanese Americans. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15, 319-327. Hoffman, M.L. (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: Empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 281-313). New York: Academic Press. References

37. Knight, G.P., Johnson, L.G., Carlo, G., & Eisenberg, N. (1994). A multiplicative model of the dispositional antecedents of a prosocial behavior: Predicting more of the people more of the time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 178-183. Ladd, G.W., Lange, G., & Stremmel, A. (1983). Personal and situational influences on children’s helping behavior: Factors that mediate helping. Child Development, 54, 488-501. Larrieu, J.A., & Mussen, P. (1986). Some personality and motivational correlates of children’s prosocial behavior. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 147, 529-542. Lourenco, O.M. (1990). From cost-perception to gain-construction: Towards a Piagetian explanation of the development of altruism in children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1990, 119-132. Lourenco, O.M. (1993). Towards a Piagetian explanation of the development of prosocial behavior in children: The force of negational thinking. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 11, 91-106. Martin, G.B., & Clark, R.D. (1982). Distress crying in neonates: Species and peer specificity. Developmental Psychology, 18, 3-9. Miller, P.A., Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R.A., Shell, R., & Gular, S. (1989). Socialization of empathic and sympathetic responding. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The Development of empathy and related vicarious responses. New directions in child development (pp. 65-83). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. References cont.

38. Miller, P.A., Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R.A., & Shell, R. (1996). Relations of moral reasoning and vicarious emotion to young children’s prosocial behavior towards peers and adults. Developmental Psychology, 32, 210-219. Plomin, R., Emde, R.N., Braungart, J.M., Campos, J., Kagan, J., Reznick, J.S., Robinson, J., Zahn-Waxler, C., & DeFries, J.C. (1993). Genetic change and continuity from fourteen to twenty months: The Mac-Arthur Longitudinal Twin Study. Child Development, 64, 1354-1376. Roberts, W.L. (1999). The socialization of emotional expression: Relations with prosocial behavior and competence in five samples. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 31, 72-85. Stevenson, H.W. (1991). The development of prosocial behavior in large-scale collective societies: China and Japan. In R.A. Hinde & J. Groebel (Eds.), Cooperation and prosocial behaviour (pp. 89-105). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Wachs, T.D. (1994). Genetics, nurture, and social development: An alternative viewpoint. Social Development, 3, 66-70. Wilson, E.O. (1978). On human nature. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Yinon, Y., Sharon, I., Azgad, Z., & Barshir, I. (1981). Helping behavior of urbanites, Moshavniks, and Kibbutzniks. Journal of Social Psychology, 113, 143-144. Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., & Chapman, M. (1992). Development of concern for others. Developmental Psychology, 28, 126-136. References cont.

39. To Kimberly Rhoades and Everett Waters for reviewing the presentation Presentation created for Psychology 552 Social and Personality Development Special Thanks