Social Development

1. Social Development

2. Social Development • Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments • Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother

3. Social Development • Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed in strange situations without their surrogate mothers.

4. Social Development • Stranger Anxiety • fear of strangers that infants commonly display • beginning by about 8 months of age • Attachment • an emotional tie with another person • shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and displaying distress on separation

5. Social Development • Critical Period • an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development • Imprinting • the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

6. Percentage of infants who cried when their mothers left 100 80 Day care 60 40 Home 20 0 3.5 5.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5 20 29 Age in months Social Development • Groups of infants left by their mothers in a unfamiliar room (from Kagan, 1976).

7. Social Development: Child-Rearing Practices • Authoritarian • parents impose rules and expect obedience • “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.” • Permissive • submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use little punishment • Authoritative • both demanding and responsive • set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open discussion

8. Social Development: Child-Rearing Practices

9. Social Development • Basic Trust (Erik Erikson) • a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy • said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers • Self-Concept • a sense of one’s identity and personal worth

10. Adolescence: Social Development • Identity • one’s sense of self • the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles • Intimacy • the ability to form close, loving relationships • a primary developmental task in late adolescence and earlyadulthood

11. Approximate age Stage Description of Task Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants (1st year) develop a sense of basic trust. Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities. Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks (3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying (6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

12. Approximate age Stage Description of Task Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by (teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to 20’s) form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated. Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri- (40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older (late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or up) failure. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

13. 100% 80 60 40 20 0 Percent with positive, warm interaction with parents 2 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 11 Ages of child in years Adolescence: Social Development • The changing parent-child relationship

14. Review of Freud’s Stages of Development • Psychosexual Development: • Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known, but also one of the most controversial. • Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.

15. Stage 1: Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months) • During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures (sucking). • Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities. • This type of personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails.

16. Stage 2: Anal Stage (18 months to three years) • The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining feces. • Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn to control anal stimulation. • In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation during this stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive).

17. Stage 3: Phallic Stage (ages three to six) • The pleasure zone switches to the genitals • Freud believed that during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother: Oedipus Complex • Later it was added that girls go through a similar situation, developing unconscious sexual attraction to their father. Although Freud Strongly disagreed with this, it has been termed the Electra Complex by more recent psychoanalysts.

18. Stage 3: Continued • According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of his father, boys eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him • By identifying with his father, the boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses his sexual feelings toward his mother.

19. Stage 4: Latency Stage (age six to puberty) • It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and children interact and play mostly with same sex peers.

20. Stage 5: Genital Stage (puberty on) • The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. • Through the lessons learned during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.

21. Moral Development

22. Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder • As moral development progresses, the focus of concern moves from the self to the wider social world. Morality of abstract principles: to affirm agreed-upon rights and personal ethical principles Postconventional level Conventional level Morality of law and social rules: to gain approval or avoid disapproval Preconventional level Morality of self-interest: to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards

23. Adulthood: Physical Development • Menopause • the time of natural cessation of menstruation • also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines • Alzheimer’s Disease • a progressive and irreversible brain disorder • characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning

24. Proportion of normal (20/20) vision when identifying letters on an eye chart Adulthood: Physical Development • The Aging Senses 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0 10 30 50 70 90 Age in years

25. Percent correct when Identifying smells Adulthood: Physical Development • The Aging Senses 90 70 50 10 30 50 70 90 Age in years

26. Percent correct when identifying spoken words Adulthood: Physical Development • The Aging Senses 90 70 50 10 30 50 70 90 Age in years

27. Fatal accidents per 100 million miles Fatal accidents per 10,000 drivers Adulthood: Physical Development • Slowing reactions contribute to increased accident risks among those 75 and older. Fatal accident rate 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 and over Age

28. Percentage with dementia 40% 30 20 10 0 Risk of dementia increases in later years 60-64 70-74 80-84 90-95 65-69 75-79 85-89 Age Group Adulthood: Physical Development • Incidence of Dementia by Age

29. Older age groups have poorer performance After three introductions After two introductions After one introductions Adulthood: Cognitive Development 100 • Recalling new names introduced once, twice, or three times is easier for younger adults than for older ones (Crook & West, 1990). Percent of names recalled 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 18 40 50 60 70 Age group

30. Number of words recognized is stable with age Number of words recalled declines with age Adulthood: Cognitive Development • In a study by Schonfield & Robertson (1966), the ability to recall new information declined during early and middle adulthood, but the ability to recognize new information did not. Number Of words remembered 24 20 16 12 8 4 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 Age in years

31. Longitudinal method suggests more stability Cross-sectional method suggests decline Adulthood: Cognitive Development Reasoning ability score • Cross-Sectional Study • a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another • Longitudinal Study • a study in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period 60 55 50 45 40 35 25 32 39 46 53 60 67 74 81 Age in years Cross-sectional method Longitudinal method

32. Verbal scores are stable with age Nonverbal scores decline with age Verbal scores Nonverbal scores Adulthood- Cognitive Development • Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age, while nonverbal intelligence scores decline (adapted from Kaufman & others, 1989). Intelligence (IQ) score 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 20 25 35 45 55 65 70 Age group

33. Adulthood: Cognitive Development • Crystallized Intelligence • one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills • tends to increase with age • Fluid Intelligence • ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly • tends to decrease during late adulthood

34. Emotional instability 24% 16 8 0 No early 40s emotional crisis Females Males 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 Age in Years Adulthood: Social Development • Early-forties midlife crisis?

35. Adulthood: Social Changes • Social Clock • the culturally preferred timing of social events • marriage • parenthood • retirement

36. Adulthood: Social Changes • Multinational surveys show that age differences in life satisfaction are trivial (Inglehart, 1990). Percentage “satisfied” with life as a whole 80 60 40 20 0 15 25 35 45 55 65+ Age group

37. Adulthood: Social Changes