Beliefs in Early China

1. Beliefs in Early China • The world is full of invisible spirits • Ancestors • Charismatic humans who have died but are still available to help people • The world is also full of nature spirits • Plants, animals, rivers, stones, mountains, stars • Vitalized by cosmic energy • Often personified and honored as deities

2. Beliefs in Early China--Shang Ti • Lord-on-High • Ruler of the universe • Supreme ancestor of the Chinese • Deities governing aspects of the cosmos and the local environment are subordinate to him

3. Beliefs in Early China--Shang Ti • Chou dynasty (c. 1122–221 BCE) which overthrew the Shang • focus shifted to Heaven as an impersonal power controlling the universe • Rulers developed the idea of the “Mandate of Heaven” to justify their rule

4. Beliefs in Early China--Shang Ti • Human destiny is determined by virtuous deeds • Rulers have a moral duty to maintain the welfare of the people and a spiritual duty to conduct • respectful ceremonies for the highest heavenly beings

5. Taoism • Country of origin is China • It began approximately 600 B.C.E. • It originally means road or way • The Tao represents the characteristics or behavior that makes each thing in the universe what it is • The world is also used to mean reality as a whole, which consists of all the individual “ways”

6. Taoism—Central Beliefs: Tao • “unnamable,” “eternally real” • a basic concept that cannot be defined, like “goodness” • Mystical reality that cannot be grasped by the mind

7. Taoism—Central Beliefs: Tao • The Tao-te Ching says: The Tao that can be told of Is not the Absolute Tao, The Names that can be given Are not Absolute Names. The Nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth; The Named is the Mother of All Things . . .

8. Taoism—Central Beliefs--Tao • transcendent unity of all things, rather than separation. • Chang Chung-yuan :“the value of Tao lies in its power to reconcile opposites on a higher level of consciousness.” • This higher level can only be attained when one ceases to feel any personal preferences

9. Taoism-- • Seeks a carefree, natural way of life • Simple life in harmony with nature • Tradition of great mental and physical discipline

10. Taoism—Nature of the Divine • Tao is the source of the universe and the Way of reality • Tao is part of an amalgam of deities, spirits, and folk myths and devotions

11. Texts • Tao-te-ching (The Classic of • the Way and the Power) • (Lao-tsu) The author is obscure • I Ching – the five classics (Book of Changes) • Chuang-tzu

12. The Taoist Canon History of the Taoist Canon Throughout history the "Taoist Canon," or Dàozàng 道藏 "Vault of the Way," has suffered from: • lack of official status • lack of agreement about the contents across different Taoist sects • the tendency to include ever more works • much overlap among the works making it up, which copied constantly from each other • little coherence in content from one work to another • the inclusion of liturgical and meditational texts that make little sense without orally transmitted exegesis, rarely stable and often lost • lack of adequate indexing • a tradition that regarded the details of Taoist practice as secret, so that different families transmitted different collections of Taoist books, and none wanted to have their versions published

13. In the XXth century the last two issues were addressed, and Chinese and western scholars have rescued a fairly extensive canon, published it in multiple copies, and indexed it. Although there are several distinct themes, and some tend to be concentrated in certain sections, most themes are found in most sections, and the traditional organization of this vast library is both a blessing (because it represents a kind of standard) and a (somewhat greater) curse (because it inhibits understanding).

15. History of Taoism: Tao (pronounced "Dow") can be roughly translated into English as path, or the way. It is basically indefinable. It has to be experienced. It "refers to a power which envelops, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living. The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes balance in the Universe. It embodies the harmony of opposites (i.e. there would be no love without hate, no light without dark, no male without female.)" 2 

16. The founder of Taoism is believed by many to be Lao-Tse (604-531 BCE), a contemporary of Confucius. (Alternate spellings: Lao Tze, Lao Tsu, Lao Tzu, Laozi, Laotze, etc.). He was searching for a way that would avoid the constant feudal warfare and other conflicts that disrupted society during his lifetime. The result was his book: Tao-te-Ching (a.k.a. Daodejing). Others believe that he is a mythical character. 

17. Taoism started as a combination of psychology and philosophy but evolved into a religious faith in 440 CE when it was adopted as a state religion. At that time Lao-Tse became popularly venerated as a deity. Taoism, along with Buddhism and Confucianism, became one of the three great religions of China. With the end of the Ch'ing Dynasty in 1911, state support for Taoism ended. Much of the Taoist heritage was destroyed during the next period of warlordism.

18. After the Communist victory in 1949, religious freedom was severely restricted. "The new government put monks to manual labor, confiscated temples, and plundered treasures. Several million monks were reduced to fewer than 50,000" by 1960. 3 During the cultural revolution in China from 1966 to 1976, much of the remaining Taoist heritage was destroyed. Some religious tolerance has been restored under Deng Xiao-ping from 1982 to the present time. 

19. Taoism currently has about 20 million followers, and is primarily centered in Taiwan. About 30,000 Taoists live in North America; 1,720 in Canada (1991 census). Taoism has had a significant impact on North American culture in areas of "acupuncture, herbalism, holistic medicine, meditation and martial arts..." 3

20. Taoism--I Ching (Book of Changes) • a common source for Taoism and Confucianism • regarded as a classic text in both traditions

21. Taoism--I Ching (Book of Changes) • To use this subtle system • one respectfully purifies the divining objects—such as yarrow stalks or coins, which symbolize yin and yang • asks a question • casts the objects six times • consults the I Ching for symbolic interpretation of the yin–yang combinations

22. Taoism--I Ching (Book of Changes) • hexagram number 46--Sheng: “Pushing Upward,” • likened by some commentators to a tree emerging from the earth, growing slowly • And invisibly: • Thus the superior person of devoted character • Heaps up small things • In order to achieve something high and great.

23. Hexagram 46: Sheng – Moving Upward / Striving • Above; Earth, the passive • Below; wind, gentleness, penetration • This hexagram represents the action of a shoot in the earth pushing upward with effort. Moving upward with effort against restraint brings success. Seek out the great man and have no fears.

24. Basic principles of life • According to Confucianism, people can live a good life only in a well-disciplined society that stresses attention to ceremony, duty, and public service. • To experience the transcendent unity of all things, rather than separation. • Taoist sage takes a low profile in the world • Taoist ideal is a person who avoids conventional social obligations and leads a simple, spontaneous, and meditative life close to nature.

25. Taoism—Central Beliefs: Yin and Yang • Yin—female (sun) • Yang—male (Moon) • Wisdom lies in recognizing their ever-shifting but regular and balanced patterns and moving with them

26. Taoism—Central Beliefs: Yin and Yang • Yin originally meant "shady, secret, dark, mysterious, cold." • Yang in meant "clear, bright, the sun, heat."

27. Taoism—Central Beliefs: Yin and Yang • each force contains the seed of the other, so that they do not merely replace each other but actually become each other

28. Taoism—Central Beliefs: Yin and Yang

29. Historical figures • 1) Lao-tzu (approx. 600 B.C.E.) – a curator of the royal library of the Chou dynasty, author of Tao Te Ching • 2) Chuang-tzu (365-290 B.C.E.) – a minor gov’t official who left to become a hermit, survive chaos by detaching from it

30. Taoism--Lao-tzu • “Old Master” • older contemporary of Confucius • Some think the Tao-te Ching was an oral tradition, derived from the teachings of several sages, and question whether Lao-tzu ever existed • philosophy was addressed to those in leadership positions

31. Lao-tzu • “Water is the softest thing on earth. Yet its silken gentleness. Will easily wear away the hardest stone” • Nothing is evil, but things may be out of balance • The world is naturally in harmony

32. Who was Lao Tzu? Lao-tzu lived twenty-five centuries ago in ancient China. Even though the details of his existence are shrouded in the mist of time, we know with a fair degree of certainty that his name was Li Er. Legend has it that King Wu of Zhou appointed him head librarian of the imperial archives at Luoyang. In this capacity Lao-tzu was able to immerse himself in the study of history, philosophy and literature, gaining wisdom & insights along the way.

33. According to another well known legend, Confucius visited with Lao-tzu and came away in awe of Lao-tzu's intellect. Confucius recognized in Lao-tzu a deep understanding about the world that was above his own, and went so far as to liken Lao-tzu to the mysterious dragon. Lao-tzu decided to leave civilization behind when the House of Zhao began its decline. He departed Luoyang and headed through the Hangu Pass to some destination beyond the Great Wall.

34. Before leaving the gate at the Great Wall, a guard at the gate asked him to write down his thoughts on the Tao for posterity. Lao-tzu agreed, and wrote a small book in two parts, expressing his accumulated learnings in brief, concise yet profound language. This book survived over 2,500 years and came to be known as the Tao Te Ching.

36. Taoism--Chuang-tzu • Counseled indifference to birth and death • “The Master came because it was time. He left because he followed the natural flow. Be content with the moment, and be willing to follow the flow.”

37. Taoism--Chuang-tzu • asserted that the best way to live in a chaotic, absurd civilization is to become detached from it

38. Ritual and practice • Meditation • Devotions • Fasting • The members of some Taoist groups have sought to attain immortality through magic, meditation, special diets, breath control, or the recitation of scriptures • Taoist philosophy had a great influence on Chinese literature and art

39. Tai-chi chuan • Developed in the eighteenth century as a training for martial arts, it is still practiced today by many Chinese at dawn and dusk for their health • It looks like slow swimming in the air, with continual circular movement through a series of dance-like postures

40. Tai-chi chuan

41. Feng-shui (geomancy) • By observing the contours of the land and the flows of wind and water, specialist in feng-shui could reportedly determine the best places for the harmonious placement of a temple, dwelling place, or grave

42. Ethics and Morality • Wu-wei • “non-action,” or taking no intentional or invasive action contrary to the natural flow of things • Nothing is evil, but things may be out of balance

43. Ethics and Morality • Wu-wei • Even when difficulties arise, the sage does not panic and take unnecessary action: Sweet music and highly seasoned food Entertain for a while, But the clear, tasteless water from the well Gives life and energy without exhaustion. Lao-tzu10

44. Ethics and Morality • Selflessness • leads to a higher level of knowledge beyond the distinctions of life and death

45. Taoism as a religion • Taoism has a hereditary priesthood. The priests conduct public rituals, during which they submit the people’s prayers to the gods of folk religion. The chief priest prays to other divinities on behalf of the worshipers. These divinities are not former human beings but represent aspects of the Tao.

46. Confucianism • Country of origin is China • Is a philosophy bases on the ideas of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. • It originated about 500 B.C.E. • From the 100’s B.C.E. to the 1900s C.E., Confucianism was the most important single force in Chinese life. • It influenced Chinese education, government, and attitudes toward correct personal behavior and the individual’s duty to society

47. Confucianism as religion • Confucianism has no clergy and does not teach the worship of a God or gods or the existence of a life after death • Confucianism is a guide to morality and good government • From about 200 to 600 C.E. interest in Confucianism declined in China. Many Chinese turned instead to Buddhism and Taoism • Revival of interest in Confucius philosophy began in the 600’s

48. Confucianism-- • most effective strategy was for the rulers to perform classical rites and music properly so that they would remain of visibly high moral character and thus inspire the common people to be virtuous

49. Historical figures • 1) Kung Chiu (Confucius) (551-479 B.C.E.) • 2) Mencius • 3) Hsun Tzu • 4) Chu Hsi

50. Texts • Six classics (University began to teach Confucian thoughts) • Analects • Book of Rites • Reflections on Things at Hand