An Introduction to Old English ( Anglo-Saxon )

1. AnIntroduction to Old English(Anglo-Saxon)

2. English is an Indo-European Language • The family is roughly divided into two groups. The feature that distinguished the two groups is the fact that words of similar structure and meaning in one group have an S sound and the equivalent in the other group has a hard C sound. For this reason, the two groups are designated according to the pronunciation of the word for the number 100 in Latin, representing the Western Group and Sanskrit, representing the Eastern Group: • Latin: centum • Sanskrit: satem • So a centum language belongs to the western branch (like Latin) and a satem language belongs to the eastern group (like Sanskrit). • The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred languages which probably originated in Anatolia (Asiatic Turkey) and over centuries spread and developed into the languages of Europe, Anatolia and the Indian subcontinent. The Indo-European Language “tree” has about nine branches which represent divergences from the parent “Proto-Indo-European” language. These branches include Latin and the languages which developed from it like French and Spanish, Greek, Slavic and its descendents like Russian, Polish and Czech, Germanic and its descendents German, Dutch, English and the Scandinavian languages and the ancient language of India, Sanskrit and its descendents Hindi, Punjabi, Merathi, Urdu, Bengali and many other distinct languages found in the Northern Indian sub-continent.

3. The EasternBranchorSatem Group Languages

4. The Western BranchorCentum Group Languages

5. English is a World Language • The Indo-Europeanfamily of languages is spoken byapproximately 3 billionnative speakers, makingit the largestgroupbyfar. • Of the 20 most-spokenlanguages in the world, 12 of these comefrom the Indo-Europeangroup: • Spanish, English, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, German, Marathi, French, Italian, Punjabi and Urdu. • Together, these 12 account for more than 1.6 billionnative speakers. • Althoughit is not spoken by the single biggestnumber of native speakers, English is the most widespreadlanguage in the world. It has become the lingua franca of the modern world.

6. What is the history of the EnglishLanguage? Modern English is a hybridlanguagewithinfluencesonvocabulary, grammar and sentencestructurefrommanylanguagesit has comeinto contact with over the last 2000 years.

7. The Timeline of the EnglishLanguage

8. English and Dutch are linguistic “cousins”. Look at the numbers in Old English: • ānenleofan • twātwelf • þrēoþrēo-tīeneþrī-tig • fēowerfēower-tīenefēower-tig fīffīf-tīenefīf-tig • siexsiex-tīenesiex-tig • seofonseofon-tīenehund-seofon-tigeahtaeahtaeahta-tīenehund-eahta-tig • nigonnigon-tīenehund-nigon-tig • tīentwen-tighund-tēon-tighund-enleofon-tig (110) • þūsend

9. Did you notice something weird? • Anglo-Saxon was once written using the runic alphabet (the Futhorc) but Church scribes began using an adapted Latin alphabet instead. The Anglo-Saxon Alphabet has three distinctive letters called ash, barred D and thorn. Vowels can be long or short. Long vowels are shown by a line above the letter. Two vowels together are always pronounced separately e.g. bread is pronounced bree-add, not bred as in Modern English. The letters sc together are always pronounced sh. G has 3 sounds: hard g, dg like in edge or if it has an e in front or behind it becomes a Y e.g. gear is pronounced like modern year. • aAæÆbBcCdDðÐeEfFgGhHiIlLmMnNoOpPrRsStTþÞuUwWyY • You will also see there is no K, Q or V. The letters C, CW and F were used instead.

10. Whatabout these? • æcer – akker bān – been – • belīfan – blijven binnan – binnen • bītan – bijten blōd – bloed • brecan – breken bremel – braam • brōþor – broer buan – bouwen • bufan – boven ciele – kil • cīepan – kopen cild – kind • cirice – kerk cnapa – knaap • cwic – kwik cyning – koning • cyne-rīce – koningrijk dǽd – daad • dǽlen – delen dēaþ – dood • dēofol – duivel dēor – dier • dohtor – dochter draca – draak • duru – deur ēage – oog • ēare – oorearm – arm • earn – arendele – olie • ende – eind engel – engel • Engla-land – Engeland eorþe – aarde • The Colours • rēadgeolo • grēneblǽw • brūnblǽc • hwītpurpu • The InterrogativePronouns • hwā – who • hwelc – which • hwǽr – where • hwænne - when • hwǽt – what • hwý – why • hū - how

11. Look at the Present Tense…. • icneom ne wē ne sindon ne • þùneart ne gē ne sindon ne • hēnis ne hīe ne sindon ne • Wēsindongecumene. • We (are) have come. • For þæmþæt land wæseallgebūn. • because all the land was cultivated. • Icneom ne eald. I am not old. • Notice double negative: icneom ne • habban – to have / nabban – not to have • ichæbbewēhabbaþ • þūhæfstgēhabbaþ • hēhæfþhīehabbaþ • icnæbbe ne wēnabbaþ ne • þūnæfst ne gēnabbaþ ne • hēnæfþ ne hīenabbaþ ne • Present Simple Conjugation (regular): • icbindewēbindaþ • þūbindesgēbindaþ • hēbindaþhīebindaþ • bēon – to be (usually used to state an indisputable fact) • icbēowēbēoþ • þūbistgēbēoþ • hēbiþhīebēoþ • Seolyftþoneheo a-styred is, biþ wind. • wesan – to be (simple statements AND formation of passive and perfect tenses • iceomþùearthē is • wēsindongēsindonhīesindon

12. Nowcompare these verbs…. • lecgan – leggen licgan - liggen macian – maken • magan – mogen metan – meten motan – moeten • niman – nemen scieppan – scheppen sculan – zullen • sēon – zien slēan – slaan specan – spreken • stæppan – stappen wendan – wenden weorpan - werpen • willan – willen witan – weten worþan – worden • wyrcan – werken • berstan – barsten bēodan – bieden bindan – binden • biddan – bidden būgan – buigen ceosan – kiezen • cunnan – kunnendelfan – delven drincan – drinken • etan – eten faran – reizen (varan) flēogan – vliegen • feallen – vallen fēohtan – vechten frignan – vragen • gān – gaan healdan – houden helpan – helpen hātan – heten lǽnan – lenen lǽtan – laten

13. Anglo-SaxonTexts • About the sun: The sun goes between heaven and earth: in the day above the earth, and in the night under the earth. Ever she is running around this earth, and so light shines under the earth in the night as it in the daytime does, over our heads. • Be þǽresunnan: Seosunnegæþbetweonanheofone and eorþan: on dǽgbufaneorþan, and on niht under þisseeorþan. Æfreheobiþniernendeymbþāseorþan, and ealswaleohtescinþ under þǽreeorþan on nihtswa-swaheo on dǽgdeþbufanurumheafdum.

14. Anglo-SaxonTexts • About the sun: The sun goes between heaven and earth: in the day above the earth, and in the night under the earth. Ever she is running around this earth, and so light shines under the earth in the night as it in the daytime does, over our heads. • Be þǽresunnan: Seosunnegæþbetweonanheofone and eorþan: on dǽgbufaneorþan, and on niht under þisseeorþan. Æfreheobiþniernendeymbþāseorþan, and ealswaleohtescinþ under þǽreeorþan on nihtswa-swaheo on dǽgdeþbufanurumheafdum.

15. Anglo-SaxonTexts • About the air. Air is very thin. It goes over all (the) earth, and rises up to the moon. In it fly fowls (birds) just as fishes swim in water. Nor might none of them fly if the air did not bear them. The air carries all the clouds and storms. The air, when it is stirred up, is wind. • Be þærelyfte: Lyft is swiþeþynne. Seoofer-gæþealnemiddangeard, and up-astigþoþþonemonam. On þærefleogaþfuglasswa-swafiscasswimmaþ on wætere. Ne mihtehirananfleogan, næreseolyftþehiebierþ. Seolyft a-bierþeallwolcnu and eallestormas. Seolyftþoneheo a-styred is, biþ wind.

16. Anglo-SaxonTexts • Our Father, that art in heaven, hallowed be Thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive is out trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation. And deliver us from evil. Be it so (Amen) • Ðu, ureFæder, þeeart on heofonum, syþynnamagehalgod. Cumeþin rice. Syþinwylla on eorþanswa-swa on heofonum. Syle us to-dægurnedæghwamlicanhlaf. And forgyf us uregyltas, swa-swa we forgyfaþðamþewið us agyltaþ. And ne lædðuna us on costnunge. Ac alys us framyfele. Sy hit swa.

17. Beowulf • Beowulf is the title of an Old English heroic poem consisting of 3182 alliterative long lines, set in Scandinavia. It is commonly known as one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature. Its composition by an anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet is dated between the 8th and the early 11th century. It survives in a single manuscript known as the Nowell Codex, which was transcribed from a lost original by two different scribes in about 1000AD. • In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, battles three antagonists: Grendel, who has been attacking the resident warriors of the mead hall of Hroðgar, the king of the Danes; Grendel's mother; and an unnamed dragon. The last battle takes place later in life, Beowulf now being king of the Geats. In the final battle, Beowulf is fatally wounded. After his death his retainers bury him in a tumulus in Geatland.

18. GeographicalLocations

19. Don’texaggerate! • A kenning is a hyperbole, intended to exaggerate the heroic nature of the poem. Thoseused in Icelandic and Norse poetrytend to becomplicatedphraseswhereasthoseused in Anglo-Saxon are simple, two-wordcompoundsjoinedby a hyphen. • seġl-rād “sail-road” • swan-rād “swan-road” • Veryrarely, a genitivestructure is used: • heofonesġim “sky’s jewel” = “the sun” • Anglo-Saxonpoetry is knownfortwokey features: • 1. The poemreliesonalliterationforitsinternalcohesion. • 2, Itmakesuse of literarydevicescalledkenningswhich are a type of metaphor, intended to exaggerate the concept of the kenning. Kenningswereusedalso in Scandinavianpoetry (Icelandic, Norwegian and Danish) Theiruse is anexample of the culturalinteractionbetweenSaxonEngland and the Vikings whopaid frequent visits to the British Isles in the 9th and 10th centuries.

20. Examples of Kennings • MeaningPoetical Kenning • the sea whale-road • the sea sail road • the sea whale's way • the sea swan-road • serpent valley-trout • shield headland of swords • ship wave-steed • ship sea-steed • the sun sky-candle • the sun sky's jewel • sword blood-worm • sword icicle of blood • war weather of weapons • warrior feeder of ravens • warrior destroyer of eagle’s hunger • wind breaker of trees • wolf Gunn's horse • MeaningPoetical Kenning • axe blood-ember • battle spear-din • bear beowulf • blood slaughter-dew • blood battle-sweat • blood wound-sea • corpse raven harvest • death sleep of the sword • death in battle flame-farewelled • fire bane of wood • fire sun of the houses • gold serpent's lair • amber Freya’s tears • honour mind's worth • hook bait-gallows • kill enemies feed the eagle • raven swan of blood

21. Does it have to rhyme? • The firsthalf-line is called the on verse. The secondhalf-line is called the off verse. The stressedsyllables in the on verse usuallyalliteratewith the firststressedsyllable of the off verse. The secondstressedsyllable of the off verse does notusuallyalliterate. The alliterating sound is always the initial sound of a stressedsyllable, not a word. • It is important to rememberthat the pronunciation of the sounds of English have changed over time and so the alliterationswhichwereobvious to a Saxonmaysometimesseem a littlestrange to a modern speaker. • The author of Beowulf is unknown. It was probablycomposedorallybetween the 8th and 11th centuries. The manuscript was written in the 11th centurybytwo different scribes. • A line of Anglo_Saxonpoetry is written in twohalf-linescalleddistichs, separatedby a heavy pausecalled a caesura. Eachhalf-line has twostressedsyllables. • Anglo-Saxonpoetry does notrhyme. Itreliesinsteadonalliterationwhich is the repeating of sounds. Repeatingvowel sounds is calledassonance. Repeating consonant sounds is calledconsonance. Alliteration is all about SOUNDS and not the LETTERS themselves. • Eachline in Beowulf has threealliterations. All vowel sounds alliteratewitheachotherbutcertain consonant combinations do not: SP, ST and S do not, forexample. Hard C and CH alliterate, as do hard G and Y (eg or ge).

22. In the beginning….. This heard in his home Hygelac's thane,great among Geats, of Grendel's doings.He was the mightiest man of valourin that same day of this our life,stalwart and stately. A stout wave-walkerhe bade make ready. Yon battle-king, said he,far o'er the swan-road he fain would seek,the noble monarch who needed men!The prince's journey by prudent folkwas little blamed, though they loved him dear;they whetted the hero, and hailed good omens.And now the bold one from bands of Geatscomrades chose, the keenest of warriorse'er he could find; with fifteen menthe sea-wood1 he sought, and, sailor proved,led them on to the land's confines.Time had now flown;2 afloat was the ship,boat under bluff. On board they climbed,warriors ready; waves were churningsea with sand; the sailors boreon the breast of the bark their bright array,their mail and weapons: the men pushed off,on its willing way, the well-braced craft.Then moved o'er the waters by might of the windthat bark like a bird with breast of foam,till in season due, on the second day,the curved prow such course had runthat sailors now could see the land,sea-cliffs shining, steep high hills,headlands broad. Their haven was found,their journey ended. • þætfram ham gefrægnHigelacesþegn, 195 god mid Geatum,         Grendlesdæda; se wæsmoncynnesmægenesstrengeston þæmdægeþysseslifes, æþeleondeacen.         Het him yðlidangodnegegyrwan,         cwæð, he guðcyning200 oferswanradeseceanwolde, mærneþeoden,         þa him wæs manna þearf. ðonesiðfæt him         snotereceorlaslythwon logon,         þeah he him leofwære; hwettonhigerofne,         hælsceawedon. 205 Hæfde se godaGeataleodacempangecoroneþaraþe he cenostefindanmihte;         XVna sum sundwudusohte;         secgwisade, lagucræftigmon,         landgemyrcu. 210 Fyrstforðgewat.         Flotawæs on yðum, bat under beorge.         Beornasgearweon stefnstigon;         streamaswundon, sundwiðsande;         secgasbæronon bearmnacanbeorhtefrætwe, 215 guðsearogeatolic;         gumanutscufon, weras on wilsið,         wudubundenne. Gewatþaoferwægholm,         windegefysed, flotafamihealsfuglegelicost, oðþætymbantidoþresdogores220 wundenstefnagewadenhæfdeþætðaliðende         land gesawon, brimclifublican,         beorgassteape, side sænæssas;         þawæssundliden, eoletesætende.