Chapter 11: Occupational Health

1. Chapter 11: Occupational Health PSYC 352 October 21

2. Occupational Health • Occupational health: Broad-based concept that refers to the mental, emotional, and physical wellbeing of employee in relation to the conduct of their work. • Work plays a critical role in one’s identity, self-esteem, and psychological wellbeing.

3. Positive Psychology • Positive psychology: The study of the factors and conditions in life that lead to pleasurable and satisfying outcomes for individuals.

4. Environmental Influences on Mental Health (1 of 3; Warr, 1987) There are 9 determinants of psychological wellbeing: • Opportunity for control • Opportunity to decide and act in one’s chosen way • Potential to predict the consequences of action

5. Environmental Influences on Mental Health (2 of 3; Warr, 1987) • Opportunity for skill use • Those that prevent people from using skills they already possess • Restrictions on the acquisition of new skills • Externally generated goals or challenges • Environmental variety

6. Environmental Influences on Mental Health (3 of 3; Warr, 1987) • Environmental clarity • Feedback about actions • Clarity of role requirement • Availability of money • Physical security • Opportunity for interpersonal contact • Valued social position • Esteem • Role membership

7. The Components of Mental Health(1 of 4;Warr, 1987) There are 5 major components of mental health: • Affective wellbeing • Pleasure • Arousal • Competence • A competent person has adequate psychological resources to deal with life’s pressures

8. The Components of Mental Health(2 of 4;Warr, 1987) • Autonomy • The ability to resist environmental influences and determine one’s own opinions/actions • “Employee’s control of the timing and method of her/his work tasks” (Turnbull, 1988) I/O Across Cultures Autonomy appears to be more important in predicting wellbeing in Western cultures than Eastern cultures.

9. The Components of Mental Health(3 of 4;Warr, 1987) • Aspiration • Someone with high aspiration engages with the environment, establishes goals, and makes efforts to attain them. High motivation Alertness to new opportunities Commitment to meet personal challenges Aspiration

10. The Components of Mental Health(4 of 4;Warr, 1987) • Integrated functioning • People who are integrated exhibit balance, harmony, and inner relatedness • 5 components work together to make up well-being: • Affective well-being • Competence • Autonomy • Aspiration • Integrated Functioning

11. Work Stress (1 of 2) • Work stress: The response to stimuli that are present on the job that lead to the negative consequences, physical or psychological, to the people who are exposed to them. • Stress symptoms can cause individuals suffering, significantly affect absenteeism and productivity levels within organizations. • Outcomes include lower levels of self-esteem, job satisfaction, and motivation as well as higher blood and cholesterol levels, depression, ulcers, and heart disease.

12. Work Stress (2 of 2) • 46% of American workers felt that their jobs were very or somewhat stressful. • 27% state that jobs were the single greatest source of stress in their lives. • In a survey of American managers, 88% reported elevated levels of stress. • Stress affects almost 1/3 of the European working population.

13. A Model of Stress (1 of 7; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992) Kahn and Byosiere’s (1992) model of stress conceptualizes stress in organizations in terms of 7 major categories. • Organizational antecedents to stress • Stress markers • Organizational characteristics • Size • Work schedule

14. A Model of Stress (2 of 7; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992) • Stressors in organizational life • There are 2 major types of stressors: Ill health is related to monotonous work and sustained vigilance Task content Strain Psychological - Role ambiguity - Role conflict - Role overload Role Properties

15. A Model of Stress (3 of 7; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992) • Perception and cognition • Helps explain why people react differently to stressors that are objectively the same. • Primary appraisal: Initial determination that a stimulus is positive, negative, or neither in its implications for wellbeing. • Secondary appraisal: Judgment about what can be done to minimize damage or maximize gain.

16. Response to stress Physiological: e.g., cardiovascular symptoms (blood pressure, cholesterol level) Psychological: e.g., job dissatisfaction Behavioral: Work role Antisocial behavior at work Flight from the job Degradation of other roles Self-damaging behavior A Model of Stress (4 of 7; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992)

17. A Model of Stress (5 of 7; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992) • Consequences of stress • The consequences of stress typically affect the performance of the individual on the job and in other life roles. • Health and illness • Organizational effectiveness • Performance in other life roles

18. A Model of Stress (6 of 7; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992) • Properties of people as stress mediators • 2 personality characteristics mediate effects of stress {stressor individual difference strain} • Personality type: • Type A: Personality construct that describes individuals who tend to be aggressive and competitive and feel under chronic time pressures. • Type B: Personality construct that describes individuals who tend not to be competitive, intense, or feel under chronic time pressures. • Locus of control: Personality construct relating to the perceived cause or locus of control for events in one’s life being either internal or external.

19. Situations Stressor Strain A Model of Stress (7 of 7; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992) • Properties of situation as stress mediators • Situations buffer stress. • The primary situation factor is social support • Other situations can buffer against stress: • Predictability, understandability, controllability

20. Prevention and Intervention • Organizational Level • Selection and placement • Training and education programs • Physical and environmental characteristics • Communication • Job redesign/restructuring • Individual/Organizational Level • Coworker support groups • Role issues • Participation and autonomy

21. Prevention and Intervention • Individual Level • Relaxation • Meditation • Biofeedback • Cognitive-behavioral therapy • Exercise • Time management • Employee assistance programs

22. Is Stress Always Bad (1 of 2)? • Certain job demands that, although pressure-laden and stressful, are viewed as rewarding work experiences. • McCauley and colleagues labeled these job demands challenges (e.g., job overload, time pressures, and high levels of responsibility) • Managers' reports that challenging job demands or work circumstances produce positive feelings, even though they may be stressful. • This is consistent with the theoretical distinction that has been made in the general stress literature between eustress and distress. Source: Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R., Roehling, M. V., & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical examination of self-reported work stress among US managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 65-74.

23. Is Stress Always Bad (2 of 2)? • Challenge Stressors • The number of projects and or assignments I have. • The amount of time I spend at work. • The volume of work that must be accomplished in the allotted time. • Time pressures I experience. • The amount of responsibility I have. • The scope of responsibility my position entails. • Hindrance Stressors • The degree to which politics rather than performance affects organizational decisions. • The inability to clearly understand what is expected of me on the job. • The amount of red tape I need to go through to get my job done. • The lack of job security I have. • The degree to which my career seems “stalled.” Source: Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R., Roehling, M. V., & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical examination of self-reported work stress among US managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 65-74.

24. Work-Family Conflict (1 of 6) • Changes in the workforce and in the family domain have renewed interest in the study of work-family conflict. Macro level changes: Methods of production Increased technological sophistication Widespread downsizing Family-related changes: Increased role for fathers Widespread maternal employment Greater life expectancy Changes in the psychological experience of work: Role overload Contingent work Job Insecurity Self-employment, working from home Skills Financial strain

25. Work-Family Conflict (2 of 6) • 3 Targets of Research in WFC (Zedeck, 1992): • Effects of work on family • Effects of family on work • Family-work interaction

26. Work-Family Conflict (3 of 6) • 3 Models of WFC: • Spillover Model: similarity between what occurs in the work and family environments • Spillover between work and family can be negative or positive (Zedeck & Mosier, 1990) • Compensation Model: inverse relationship between work and family • Segmentation Model: work and nonwork spheres are distinct

27. Work-Family Conflict (4 of 6) • Gender Differences in WFC(Kossek & Ozeki, 1998): • Correlation between WFC and job satisfaction = -.35 for women, -.29 for men • Correlation between WFC and life satisfaction = -.42 for women, -.32 for men • Mental Health and WFC (Frone, 2000): • EEs who experience WFC were 30 times more likely to experience mental health problems.

28. Work-Family Conflict (5 of 6) Why Study WFC? In a meta-analysis on the consequences of WF conflict, Allen, Herst, Bruck, and Sutton (2000) reported that WF conflict was related to: Life satisfaction (-.28) Marital satisfaction (-.23) Family satisfaction (-.17) General psychological health (.29) Physical symptoms (.29) Depression (.32) Job burnout (.42) Alcohol use (.17) Distress (.41) Family distress (.31) Job sat (.-24) Career satisfaction (-.04) Org commitment (-.23) Turnover intentions (.29) Absenteeism (-.02) Job performance (-.12)

29. Work-Family Conflict (6 of 6) • Family-Friendly Policies: • On-site child care centers • Family and Medical Leave Act (1993): • Employees can withdraw from the workforce to attend to family needs without risking the loss of their jobs • Workers get up to 12 weeks unpaid leave each year for the birth, adoption, or foster care of a child; care for a spouse, parent or child with health condition; or employee’s own health condition. • The FMLA covers private employers with 50 or more employees.

30. Dual-Career Families (1 of 2) • Rapoport and Rapoport (1969) first proposed the term “dual-career family” in the late 1960s, when more and more women were entering the workplace. They originally described a dual-career family as “both husband and wife pursue careers … and at the same time establish a family life with at least one child” (p. 1). Dual-Career Marriage Married couple in which both spouses are employed but the main purpose of one or both of the jobs is to establish and maintain a career. Dual-Earner Marriage Married couple in which both spouses are employed but the main purpose of one or both of the jobs is to produce income. Vs.

31. Dual-Career Families (2 of 2) • Approximately 60% married couples are dual-earners • Only 17% of families conform to the 50s model of the working dad and stay-at-home mom • More women adjust careers for families • Mothers with young children work 77 hours/weed in the home, on average • There is a differential in division of labor between spouses

32. Work Schedules: Shift Work • Shift work: the period of time a person must perform her/his hob; usually an 8-hour period. • Set vs. rotating shifts • Problems associated with shift work: • Physiological • Social • Shift workers are more likely to quit

33. Work Schedules: Flextime • Flextime: a schedule of work hours that permits employees flexibility in when they arrive at and leave work. • 73% of US employers offer flextime • Lateness is virtually eliminated • Findings are positive

34. Work Schedules: Compressed Workweek • Compressed work week: a schedule of work hours that typically involves more hours per day and fewer days per week. Advantages More time for recreation Chance to work 2nd job More time with family Less company overhead Disadvantages Worker fatigue Fewer productive hours More accidents

35. Substance Abuse and Work (1 of 4) • Substance Abuse: the ingestion of a broad array of substances (such as alcohol, tobacco, or drugs) that are deemed to have a harmful effect on the individual. • Statistics • ADA considers former drug use a disability • Performance impairment • Economic issues • Societal costs

36. Substance Abuse and Work (2 of 4) • Critics view of drug screening: • Screening violates individual’s right to privacy • Tests are frequently inaccurate • Most support drug testing in jobs where public safety is crucial (e.g., nuclear power plant operators) • Postal Services found that 6 months after drug testing had occurred, workers who had tested positive prior to employment were absent 41% more and fired 38% more than those who were not positive (Wessel, 1989).

37. Substance Abuse and Work (3 of 4) • Is drug screening legal? • In 1989, the Supreme Court upheld the rulings: • The constitutionality of the government regulations that require railroad crews involved in accidents to submit to prompt urinalysis and blood tests. • Urine tests for US customs service employees seeking drug-enforcement posts.

38. Substance Abuse and Work (4 of 4) • To avoid legal challenges, an employer should: • Inform all employees and job applicants of drug use policy • Include drug policy in employment contracts • Present the program in a medical and safety context • If drug screening is used with employees, tell employees in advance that it will be part of employment

39. Unemployment (1 of 3) • Employment has intended and unintended consequences • Intended: Earning a living • Unintended: • Imposed time structure • Regular interactions with people • Linking of goals to purposes • Status and identity • Enforcement of activity

40. Unemployment (2 of 3) Opportunity for control Opportunity for skill use Externally generated goals or challenges Environmental variety Environmental clarity Availability of money Physical security Opportunity for interpersonal contact Valued social position 9 environmental factors needed for mental health Intended and unintended consequences of unemployment Negative effect on well-being

41. Unemployment (3 of 3) • Relationship between unemployment and mental well-being: Gaining employment Improved well-being r = .54 Losing employment Decreased well-being r = .36

42. Child Labor and Exploitation • Child Labor: economic activities carried out by a person less than 15 years of age. • Not common in US • Not rare in other countries (250 million children worldwide) • Harmful because it interferes with healthy development (physical and psychological)