Introduction to Sociology SOC-101

1. Introduction to SociologySOC-101 Unit 7 – Stratification and Social Class

2. Systems of Social Stratification • Social stratification • A system in which people are divided into layers according to their relative power, property, and prestige • Refers to the ranking of large groups of people rather than individual people • Every society stratifies its members • The degree of inequality varies • No matter what system a society may use to divide people into different layers, gender is always an essential part of the distinctions within each layer • On the basis of gender, people are sorted into categories and given differential access to rewards • Social distinctions have usually favored males

3. Systems of Social Stratification • Slavery • Form of social stratification in which some people own other people • Initially slavery was based on debt, punishment for violation of the law, or defeat in battle • Many of the first slaves were women, captured after the defeat of their village • Slavery could be temporary or permanent and was not necessarily passed on to one’s children • Typically, slaves owned no property and had no power • This was not universally true, however

4. Systems of Social Stratification • Slavery (con’t) • American colonists first tried to enslave Indians • Then turned to Africans, who were being brought to North and South America by the British, Dutch, English, Portuguese, and Spanish • When American slave owners found it was profitable to own slaves for life, they developed an ideology around the idea and to made slaves inheritable • Although illegal, slavery still exists in places like the Sudan and Mauritania • Villages are raided, the men killed, and the women and children captured and sold

5. Systems of Social Stratification • Caste Systems • Status is determined by birth and is lifelong • Ascribed status is the basis of a caste system • Caste societies try to make certain that the boundaries between castes remain firm • Practicing endogamy (marriage within their own group) • Developing rules about ritual pollution, teaching that contact with inferior castes contaminates the superior caste • Although abolished by the Indian government in 1949, the caste system remains part of everyday life in India

6. Systems of Social Stratification • Caste Systems (con’t) • This system is based on religion and is made up of four main castes which are subdivided into thousands of specialized subcastes or jati • The lowest caste is considered to be "untouchable," and ablution (washing rituals) is required to restore purity for those contaminated by individuals from this group • An American racial caste system developed in the United States when slavery ended • Even in the earlier parts of this century, all whites were considered higher than all African Americans and in the South, separate accommodations were maintained for each race

7. Systems of Social Stratification • Class system • Form of social stratification based primarily on the possession of money or material possessions • An individual’s initial social class position is based on that of her or his parents (ascribed status) • A class system allows for social mobility—movement up or down the social class ladder—based on achieved status. • Gender cuts across slavery, caste, and class • In all societies, gender becomes the basis for the distribution of the good things available in the society

8. India’s Caste System

9. What Determines Social Class? • Karl Marx (1818-1883) • Social class is determined by one’s relationship to the means of production—the tools, factories, land, and investment capital used to produce wealth • Modern society is composed of just two classes of people • Bourgeoisie (capitalists) own the means of production • Proletariat (workers) work for those who own the means of production • As capital becomes more concentrated, the two classes become increasingly more hostile to one another

10. What Determines Social Class? • Class consciousness develops • Awareness of a common identity based on one’s position in the means of production • According to Marx, this is the essential basis for the unity of workers • Marx believed that the workers would revolt against the capitalists, take control of the means of production, and usher in a classless society • However, the workers’ unity and revolution are held back by false class consciousness—the mistaken identification of workers with the interests of capitalists

11. What Determines Social Class? • Max Weber (1864-1920) • Did not believe that property was the sole basis of a person’s position in the stratification system • Rather he believed that it was property, prestige, and power that determined social class • Property is an essential element • However, some powerful people, like managers of corporations, control the means of production even though they do not own them • Prestige may be derived from ownership of property • This may also be based on other factors, such as athletic skills • Power is the ability to control others, even over their objections

12. Why is Social Stratification Universal? • Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (1945, 1953) • Functionalists who believed social stratification is inevitable • Society must make certain that its important positions are filled with qualified people and to guarantee this the society offers them greater rewards • Argued that because society offers greater rewards for its more responsible, demanding, and accountable positions, qualified people compete for them

13. Why is Social Stratification Universal? • Melvin Tumin(1953) criticized the functionalist view • Argued that the importance of a position cannot be measured by the rewards, and that such an argument is circular • There must be independent indicators of importance • Noted that if stratification worked as Davis and Moore describe it, society would be a meritocracy • A form of social stratification in which all positions are awarded on the basis of merit • But it does not work this way (e.g., the best predictor of college entrance is family income, not ability) • Also argued that money and fringe benefits are not the only reasons people take jobs • Noted that stratification is dysfunctional, not functional, to many people

14. Why is Social Stratification Universal? • Conflict theorists stress that conflict, not function, is the basis of social stratification • Every society has limited resources to go around and each group struggles with one another for those resources • Whenever a group gains power, it uses that power to extract what it can from the groups beneath it. • The dominant group takes control of the social institutions, using them to keep other groups weak and preserve the best resources for itself

15. Why is Social Stratification Universal? • Gaetano Mosca (1896) argued that it is inevitable that every society will be stratified by power • This is because the ruling class is well organized and enjoys easy communication among its relatively few members • It is extremely difficult for the majority they govern to resist • Society cannot exist unless it is organized • Political power developed to get the work of society done • Politics results in inequalities of power because some people take leadership positions and others follow • It is human nature to be self-centered • Thus, people in positions of power use their positions to bring greater rewards to themselves

16. Why is Social Stratification Universal? • Marx argued that the bourgeoisie are in power because they control society’s resources • They are using those resources to benefit themselves and to oppress those beneath them • Modern conflict theorists stress that conflict between capitalists and workers is not the only important conflict in contemporary society • The competition for scarce resources results in conflict not only between groups from different classes, but also between groups within the same social class • E.g., young vs. old and women vs. men

17. Why is Social Stratification Universal? • Gerhard Lenski (1966) offered a synthesis between functionalist and conflict theories • Functionalists are right when it comes to societies that have only basic resources and do not accumulate wealth • Includes hunting and gathering societies • Conflict theorists are right when it comes to societies with a surplus • In such societies humans pursue self-interests and struggle to control those surpluses • This leads to the emergence of a small elite who then builds inequality into the society, resulting in a full-blown system of social stratification

18. How Do Elites Maintain Stratification? • Social stratification is maintained within a nation because elites control ideas and information, maintain social networks, and use force • Ideology can be more effective than the use of brute force in maintaining inequality • The control of ideas is used by elites everywhere to maintain their positions of power—whether in dictatorships or in democracies • To the degree that their ideologies are accepted by the masses, political arrangements are stable • Example: divine right of kings

19. How Do Elites Maintain Stratification? • Controlling Speech and Information • In a dictatorship, elites use the threat of force to try to control information • In a democracy, they manipulate the media by the selective release of information. • Controlling Technology • Technology aids the elite in preserving its position by enabling them to monitor citizens’ activities without their even being aware that they are being observed

20. Comparative Social Stratification • Great Britain’s class system can be divided into upper, middle, and lower classes • About half of the population is in the lower or working class • Half is in the middle class • About 1 percent is in the upper class • The British are extremely class conscious • Language and speech patterns are important class indicators • Education is the primary way the class system is perpetuated from one generation to the next

21. Comparative Social Stratification • In the Soviet Union, the ideal of communism—a classless society—was never realized. • The major basis for stratification was membership in the Communist Party • This consisted of top party officials, a relatively small middle class, and a massive lower class of peasants and unskilled workers • Soviet leaders, frustrated over time with the system’s inability to be economically successful, initiated capitalistic reforms in the hopes of turning things around • The transition to capitalism has taken bizarre twists • Some Russians organizing into criminal groups, stealing vast amounts of state property, amassing great wealth, and intimidating business people

22. Global Stratification: Three Worlds • Until recently global stratification was depicted using a simple model consisting of • First World - industrialized capitalist nations • Second World - Communist nations • Third World - all the rest of the nations • With the collapse of communism, these terms became outdated, while other models implied moral judgments about levels of development • A more neutral framework describes degrees of industrialization and depicts, on a global level, the three primary dimensions of social stratification: property, power, and prestige.

23. Global Stratification: Three Worlds • Most Industrialized Nations • U.S., Canada, Great Britain, France, Germany, Switzerland, and other industrialized nations of western Europe, as well as Japan, Australia, and New Zealand • They are capitalistic, although variations exist in their economic systems and their wealth is enormous • The poor in these countries live better/longer than the average citizens in the Least Industrialized Nations

24. Global Stratification: Three Worlds • Industrializing Nations • Include the former Soviet Union and its satellite countries in Eastern Europe • People living in these countries have considerably lower income and a poorer standard of living than people in the Most Industrialized Nations, but better than those living in the Least Industrialized Nations • Least Industrialized Nations • Where most people live on farms or in villages with low standards of living • 68 percent of the world’s population lives in these nations

26. Process of Global Stratification • Colonialism occurred when industrialized nations made colonies of weaker nations and exploited their labor/natural resources • European nations tended to focus on Africa, while the U.S. concentrated on Central and South America • The more powerful European nations planted their national flags in a colony and sent representatives to run the government • The U.S. planted corporate flags in the particular colony and let corporations dominate the territory’s government

27. Process of Global Stratification • Western imperialism and colonialism shaped the Least Industrialized Nations • Drew lines across a map to divide up their spoils • Created states without regard for tribal or cultural considerations • The legacy of European conquests still erupts in tribal violence • Tribes with no history of national identity were arbitrarily incorporated into the same political boundaries

28. Process of Global Stratification • World System Theory – Immanual Wallerstein (1974) • Believed that countries are politically and economically tied together • There are four groups of interconnected nations • Core nations, where capitalism first developed • Semi-periphery nations (Mediterranean area), which are highly dependent on trade with the core nations • Periphery nations (eastern Europe), those mainly limited to selling cash crops to the core nations, with limited economic development • External area nations (most of Africa/Asia), which have been left out of the growth of capitalism and have few economic ties to the core nations

29. Process of Global Stratification • World System Theory (con’t) • A capitalist world economy (capitalist dominance) results from relentless expansion • Even external area nations are drawn into this commercial web • Globalization • The extensive interconnections among nations resulting from the expansion of capitalism • This has speeded up due to new forms of communication and transportation • The consequence is that no nation lives in isolation

30. Process of Global Stratification • Culture of Poverty - John Kenneth Galbraith (1979) • Argued that some nations remain poor because they are crippled by a culture of poverty • This is a way of life based on traditional values and religious beliefs that perpetuate poverty from one generation to the next • Keeps some of the Least Industrialized Nations from developing • Most sociologists find colonialism/world system theory explanations preferable to the culture of poverty theory • This is because the later places the blame on the victim • But each theory only partially explains global stratification

31. Maintaining Global Stratification • Neocolonialism • The economic and political dominance of the Least Industrialized Nations by the Most Industrialized Nations • Michael Harrington (1977) asserts that this occurs because the Most Industrialized Nations control markets, set prices, etc. • They move hazardous industries into the Least Industrialized Nations and sell weapons and manufactured goods to the Least Industrialized Nations, preventing them from developing their own industrial capacity • Modern examples: West control of the Middle East

32. Maintaining Global Stratification • Multinational corporations contribute to the exploitation of the Least Industrialized Nations • They exploit these nations directly by controlling national and local politics, running them as a fiefdom. • Multinational corporations work closely with elites of the Least Industrialized Nations, funneling investments to this small circle of power in exchange for its cooperation • The Most Industrialized Nations are the primary beneficiaries of profits made in the Least Industrialized Nations. • In some situations, multinational corporations may bring prosperity to the Least Industrialized Nations • New factories provide salaries and opportunities which otherwise would not exist for workers in those countries

33. Maintaining Global Stratification • The new technology favors the Most Industrialized Nations, enabling them to maintain their global domination. • The profits of multinational corporations can be invested in developing and acquiring the latest technology, thereby generating even greater profits • Many of the Least Industrialized Nations do not have the resources to invest in new technology, which creates an even greater gap between the levels of industrialization globally

34. What is Social Class? • Weber defined social class as a large group of people who rank close to each other in wealth, power, and prestige • Wealth • Consists of property (what we own) and income (money we receive) • Wealth and income are not always the same—a person may own much property yet have little income, or vice versa. • Usually, however, wealth and income go together • Ownership of property (real estate, stocks and bonds, etc.) is not distributed evenly • 10% of the U.S. population owns 70 percent of the wealth • The richest 1% of U.S. families are worth more than the entire bottom 90 percent of Americans

35. What is Social Class? • Wealth (con’t) • Income is also distributed disproportionately • Top 20% of U.S. residents earn 47% of the income • Bottom 20 percent receive less than 5% • Each fifth of the U.S. population receives approximately the same proportion of national income today as it did in 1945 • The changes that have occurred indicate growing inequality • The richest 20% of U.S. families have grown richer while the poorest 20% percent have grown poorer • Apart from the very rich, the most affluent group in U.S. society is the executive officers of the largest corporations • Their median compensation is $7.6 million a year • A CEO’s income is 200 times higher than the average pay of U.S. workers

36. What is Social Class? • Power • The ability to carry out your will in spite of resistance and is concentrated in the hands of a few—the “power elite” • Share the same ideologies and values, belong to the same clubs, and reinforce each other’s world view • No major decision in U.S. government is made without their approval

37. What is Social Class? • Prestige • The respect or regard people give to various occupations and accomplishments • Occupations are the primary source of prestige • Those with the highest prestige pay more, require more education, entail more abstract thought, and offer greater autonomy • Occupational prestige rankings tend to be consistent across countries and over time • 2. For prestige to be valuable, people must acknowledge it • The elite traditionally create rules to emphasize their higher status • Status symbols, which vary according to social class, are ways of displaying prestige • In the U.S., they include designer label clothing, expensive cars, prestigious addresses, and attendance at particular schools

38. What is Social Class? • Status inconsistency • The situation of people who have a mixture of high and low rankings in the three components of social class (wealth, power, and prestige) • Most people are status consistent—they rank at the same level in all three components • People who are status inconsistent want others to treat them on the basis of their highest status, but tend to be judged on the basis of their lowest status • Sociologist Gerhard Lenski determined that people suffering the frustrations of status inconsistency are more likely to be radical and approve political action aimed against higher status groups

39. Sociological Models of Social Class • The number of classes that exist in an industrial society is a matter of debate • There are two main models: one that builds on the ideas of Marx and the other on those of Weber

40. Sociological Models of Social Class • Erik Wright (1985) • Realized that not everyone falls into Marx’s two broad classes (capitalists and workers) • For instance, although executives, managers, and supervisors fall into Marx’s category of workers, they act more like capitalists • Wright resolved this problem by regarding some people as simultaneously members of more than one class, occupying what he called contradictory class locations • Wright identified four classes: • Capitalists, the owners of large enterprises • Petty bourgeoisie, the owners of small businesses • Managers, the employees with authority over others • Workers, who sell their labor to others

41. Sociological Models of Social Class • Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl (1998, 2008) created a model to describe class structure in the United States and other capitalist countries • The capitalist class (1 percent of the population) is composed of investors, heirs, and a few executives • It is divided into “old” money and “new” money • The children of “new” money move into the old money class by attending the right schools and marrying “old” money • The upper middle class (15 percent of the population) is composed of professionals and upper managers • Most of whom have attended college or university and frequently have postgraduate degrees • Of all the classes, this class is the one most shaped by education

42. Sociological Models of Social Class • The lower middle class (34 percent of the population) is composed of lower managers, craftspeople, and foremen • They have at least a high school education • The working class (30 percent of the population) is composed of factory workers and low-paid white collar workers • Most have a high school education. • The working poor (16 percent of the population) is composed of relatively unskilled blue-collar and white-collar workers, including those with temporary and seasonal jobs • If they graduated from high school, these workers probably did not do well • The underclass (4 percent of the population) is concentrated in the inner cities and has little connection with the job market • Welfare is their main support

43. Social Class Ladder in the U.S.

44. Consequences of Social Class • Social class affects our health • The lower classes have more sickness and higher death rates • This pattern is influenced by unequal access to medical care • Mental health, too, is affected by social class • Studies show that the mental health of the lower classes is worse than that of the higher classes due to the stresses of poverty • Social class is also a deciding factor in how the mentally ill are treated, with poorer individuals having less access to mental health facilities

45. Consequences of Social Class • Social class plays a role in family life. • Children of the capitalist class are under great pressure to select the right mate in order to assure the continuity of the family line and their parents play a large role in mate selection • Marriages are more likely to fail in the lower social classes; the children of the poor thus are more likely to live in single-parent households • The amount of education increases and the type changes as one goes up the social class ladder • Children of the upper classes bypassing public schools in favor of private education

46. Consequences of Social Class • Religious orientation also follows class lines • Classes tend to cluster in different denominations • Patterns of worship also follow class lines • Political views and involvement are influenced by social class as well • People in lower classes are more likely to vote Democrat, and those in higher classes to vote Republican because the parties are seen as promoting different class interests • People in the working class are more likely to be liberal on economic issues and more conservative on social issues • Political participation is not equal • People at the bottom of the class structure are less likely to vote or get involved in politics

47. Social Mobility • There are three basic types of social mobility • Intergenerational mobility - The change that family members make in their social class from one generation to the next • As a result of individual effort, a person can rise from one level to another; but in the event of individual failure, the reverse can be true • Structural mobility - Social changes that affect large numbers of people • The economy shifted from factory machines to computers vast numbers of new jobs were created and shifts from blue-collar jobs to white-collar positions occurred • Exchange mobility - The movement of people up and down the social class system, while, on balance, the proportions remain the same

48. Social Mobility • Studies of social mobility in the United States have focused on men • Compared with their fathers, one-half of all men have moved up in social class; one-third have stayed in the same place; and one-sixth have moved down • In the past it was assumed that women had no class position of their own; they were simply assigned to the class of their husbands • However, structural changes in the U.S. economy have created opportunities for women to move up the social class ladder • One study indicated that women who did move up were encouraged by their parents to postpone marriage and get an education

49. Poverty • The U.S. government classifies the poverty line as including families whose incomes are less than three times a low-cost food budget • It does take into account family size and cost of living • This line has been criticized for being too low, many think it should be increased by 50% • Any modification of this measure instantly adds or subtracts millions of people, and thus has significant consequences

50. Poverty • Certain social groups are disproportionately represented among the poor population • Poverty is not evenly distributed among the states; the poor are clustered in the South more than in other region, and in California more than in other states • The poverty rate for the rural poor is slightly higher than the national average • While they show the same racial/ethnic characteristics as the nation as a whole, the rural poor are less likely to be single parents, are less skilled and less educated • In addition, the jobs available to them pay less