Introduction to Sociology SOC-101

1. Introduction to Sociology SOC-101 Unit 6 – Social Groups and Formal Organizations

2. Social Groups • Most people seek a sense of belonging, which is the experience of group membership • Aggregate • Individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but who do not see themselves belonging together • For example, people in an elevator, a commuter train, or standing in a line at the store • Category • Individuals who share the same characteristics • For example, students, homeowners, millionaires, blondes, etc.

3. Social Groups • Social Group • Two or more people who identify and interact with one another • They contain people with shared experiences, loyalties, and interests • Charles Cooley (1909) came up with two types of social groups based on their members’ degree of genuine personal concern and loyalty for each other • Primary Groups • Secondary Groups

4. Primary Groups • Primary Group • A group characterized by intimate, long-term, face-to-face association and cooperation among its members • People share personal and enduring relationships and show real concern towards each other • The family is a primary group

5. Primary Groups • Members of primary groups tend to influence our socialization process by shaping our behavior, attitudes, and values • Sense of Belonging • With primary groups, we feel a sense of attachment, belonging • The group is seen as an end in itself rather than a means to other ends • Each member is considered unique and irreplaceable

6. Secondary Groups • Secondary Group • A larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity • Involve weak personal ties and little personal knowledge of one another • Many of these groups are short term, a “means to an end” • Unlike primary groups which have a personal orientation, secondary groups have a goal orientation • “What can they do for us?” type of attitude • We also tend to “keep score” in secondary groups of what we give others and what we receive in return

7. In-Groups and Out-Groups • We all favor certain groups over others depending on our interests, values, and attitudes • In-Group • A social group that commands a member’s esteem and loyalty • Members generally hold overly positive views of themselves and unfairly negative views of various out-groups • Out-Group • A social group which one feels competition, opposition or antagonism towards

8. In-Groups and Out-Groups • Being a member of a group can generate not only a sense of belonging, but loyalty and a sense of superiority • This can lead to rivalries with other groups • Identification with groups can lead to ethnic, racial, and gender divisions • We develop a biased perception that leads to a “double standard” • We see the traits of our in-group as virtues while we see those same traits in out-groups as vices • A sex crazed man is seen as a “stud” while a sex crazed woman is seen as a “slut”

9. In-Groups and Out-Groups • Such divisions can lead to violence • For example, members of the Ku Klux Klan beating a black man to death for looking at a white woman the wrong way • Economic and political changes can strengthen these divisions • In times of economic recession or depression, we tend to find a “scapegoat” to blame for our troubles

10. Reference Groups • Reference Group • This is a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions, especially about ourselves • Can be either primary or secondary groups • Our psychological need to conform means that these reference groups can affect our behaviors, attitudes, and values

11. Reference Groups • They provide a yardstick to measure ourselves up to • If we want to achieve a certain status held by a group, we change our looks, attitudes, and behaviors to help us get that status • If we feel that we measure up to the standards of the reference group we feel no conflict • If we feel that we do not measure up to these standards this can lead to inner turmoil

12. Social Networks

13. Social Network • Social Network • A web of social ties • Includes family, friends, friends of friends, etc. • They tend to be weak ties, most of them include people we “know of” or people who “know of us” • Networks are based on interests, status, wealth, prestige, and even gender • For example, women include more relatives and women in their networks, while men include more co-workers and men

14. “Six Degrees of Separation” • In 1967, Stanley Milgram did a study called the “small world phenomenon” • He suggested any two people in the U.S. were connected on average by a chain of six acquaintances • He sent 60 letters to various people in Nebraska who were asked to forward the letter to a certain stockbroker living in Massachusetts • The participants were required to pass the letters only by hand to personal acquaintances who they thought might be able to reach the target

15. “Six Degrees of Separation” • Milgram claimed success since some of the letters actually were received by the intended recipient • However, when the study was looked at more closely, only 5% of the letters actually reached its destination • When the experiment was reproduced, only a very small percentage reached the destination • It was not actually a “small world” as Milgram implied

16. Formal Organizations

17. Formal Organizations • Formal Organizations • These are large secondary groups that are organized to achieve their goals efficiently • They do so by being impersonal and have a planned atmosphere • We rely on formal organizations everyday from schools to mail delivery • They develop their own cultures that perpetuate even as workers come and go

18. Formal Organizations • There are three types of formal organizations based on the reasons why people participate in them • Normative Organizations • Coercive Organizations • Utilitarian Organizations

19. Formal Organizations • Normative Organization • This is an organization that is not monetarily rewarding but is personally satisfying, morally worthwhile and/or socially prestigious • Examples • Volunteer Organizations – PTA, Red Cross, Doctors Without Borders • Political Parties • Religious Organizations

20. Formal Organizations • Coercive Organization • This type of organization forces members to join as a form of punishment or treatment • Includes mental hospitals and prisons • The members are separated as “inmates” or “patients” for a period of time and designed to radically alter their attitudes and behaviors

21. Formal Organizations • Utilitarian Organization • This type of organization offers people a source of income • It grants more individual freedom than coercive organization but less than normative ones • Most people are required to spend most of their days working for this type of organization

22. Formal Organizations • An organization can fit into one, two, or all three types at once • For example a mental hospital fits into all three types: • It is a normative organization to the people who volunteer there • It is a coercive organization to the patients • It is a utilitarian organization to the people who work there

23. Bureaucracies

24. Bureaucracy • Bureaucracy • A bureaucracy is a formal organizational model rationally designed to perform tasks efficiently • Max Weber was the one who noted that during the Industrial Revolution there was a shift to achieve more efficient results • There was a shift from personal loyalties to the “bottom line.” • With this shift there was the development of the bureaucracy • Formal organizations have been around since the dawn of civilization

25. Development of Bureaucracy • The efficiency of early formal organizations was limited by the traditional character of pre-industrial society • The pre-industrial societies were more traditional, while the industrial societies were more rational • Traditional Character • This is a society (pre-industrial) where sentiments and beliefs about the world passed from generation to generation • Mechanisms of organization are based on tradition • This fuels conservatism, preventing of an organization from being highly efficient

26. Development of Bureaucracy • Rational Character • This is when a society (industrial) has the deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most efficient means to accomplish a particular task • Rationality pays little attention to the past and is open up to change in whatever way seems likely to get the job done better or more quickly

27. Development of Bureaucracy • Rationalization • This is the change from tradition to rationality as the dominant mode of human character • Modern society becomes “disenchanted” as sentimental and traditional ties give way to a rational focus on science • This is when we see the rise of a bureaucracy as the most efficient form of organization

28. Characteristics of Bureaucracy • According to Weber, there are certain characteristics to a bureaucracy • Clear levels, with assignments flowing downward and accountability flowing upward • A division of labor • Written rules • Written communication and records • Impersonality and replaceability

29. Problems With Bureaucracies • While bureaucracies are highly efficient, they can also be dysfunctional • Bureaucratic Ritualism • This is the preoccupation of the workers with rules and regulations to the point of that they become inefficient • “Red Tape” • This concept comes from the red tape used in 18th century English administration practice of wrapping official packages and records in red tape

30. Problems With Bureaucracies • Bureaucratic Alienation • Bureaucracy has the potential to dehumanize the people who work in it and the people its suppose to serve • Workers are alienated in that they feel more like objects rather than workers • Due to all the rules, regulations, and assigned functions • Weber said that in a bureaucracy a human being is reduced to a “small cog in a ceaselessly moving mechanism.”

31. Problems With Bureaucracies • Workers usually fight this alienation • Do so by informally gathering during work or after and by adding personal touches to their work space • Clients feel alienated • Due to the impersonality the bureaucracies encourage which keeps officials and clients from responding to each other’s unique, personal needs • Bureaucratic Inertia • This refers to the tendency of bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate themselves

32. Problems With Bureaucracies • Bureaucracies are a powerful motivation tool because they harness people’s energies to reach a specific goal but what happens when that goal is reached? • Usually what the officials do is change their focus to achieve a new goal • Why waste a perfectly good bureaucracy? • Examples of bureaucracies that changed: • March of Dimes – Originally designed to find a cure for polio and now it works on preventing birth defects • NATO – Originally designed to help the west protect itself against the Soviet Union and now Russia is a member • U.S. Department of Agriculture – Originally designed to help farmers but now works on environmental and nutritional research

33. Problems With Bureaucracies • Oligarchy • This is the rule of the many by the few • “Iron Law of Oligarchy” • The pyramid shape of the bureaucracy places a few leaders in charge of vast resources • Weber connected a strict hierarchy of responsibility with increasing organizational efficiency which is why this is seen in a bureaucracy

34. Problems With Bureaucracies • Unfortunately, hierarchy also undermines democracy • To promote their own personal interests, officials can and do use their access to resources, information, and the media • This it undermines people’s control over their leaders especially since oligarchy thrives in the hierarchical structure of bureaucracy • In the U.S. we have term limits, a system of checks and balances, and competition which prevents our government from becoming an out-and-out oligarchy • However, incumbents do enjoy a significant advantage in U.S. politics

35. Problems With Bureaucracies • Parkinson’s Law - C. Northcote Parkinson (1957) • This states that “work expands to fill the time available for its completion” • This means that if a full day is available to complete the work, a full day is how long it will take • Rather than look for extra work, bureaucrats are going to try look busy • This makes the organization to think its busy and thus takes on more employees

36. Problems With Bureaucracies • Peter Principle – Laurence J. Peter (1969) • States that “bureaucrats are promoted to their level of incompetence” • Employees who are competent at one level of the hierarchy will be promoted to higher positions • Eventually, they reach a position where they are no longer competent and they perform poorly and become ineligible for further advancement • By reaching their “level of incompetence,” they will have a future of inefficiency • On top of this, by being in the organization for so long, they have learned how to hide their incompetency and take credit from those underneath them

37. Corporations

38. Working for the Corporation • Every formal organization develops their own culture • Corporate Culture • The orientations that characterize corporate work settings • It contains hidden values which create a self-fulfilling prophecy that affects corporate careers

39. Working for the Corporation • Bosses tend to have a stereotype of what good workers are like and promote people based on this • “The Good Workers” • The bosses feel that they are one of the good workers and will look for people who are like them • They are given more opportunities, networking, and put into “fast-track” positions • In turn, they perform better and are more committed, thus fulfilling the prophecy

40. Working for the Corporation • The “Bad Workers” • These are the workers whose initial expectations are held low • They are not given full access to information or opportunities • Thus, they tend to work at a level below their capacity and see themselves in poor light, leading to poor job performance • This confirms the original stereotypes placed on them • Women and minorities are usually put in this negative stereotype • Thus, they are not put in positions of power • Instead they are put in “showcase” positions which are highly visible but do not have any power • Even though corporations are becoming more diversified, it will take a long time for this corporate culture to give way

41. U.S. and Japanese Corporations • Japanese society contain a culture of strong collective identity and solidarity, and this can be found in their corporations • While the U.S. prizes individualism, the Japanese value cooperation

42. U.S. and Japanese Corporations • William Ouchi (1981) noted five distinct ways in which U.S. and Japanese corporations differ from each other • Teams are hired right out of college, all with the same starting salaries and responsibilities • They are rotated through the company as a team to learn the various roles • They receive raises and accolades as a team • The workers are loyal to their teams and it becomes like a primary group • It is only until much later that single individuals are marked for advancement

43. Hiring and Promotions • U.S. – They value individualism • Individuals are hired based on what they could do for the corporation • Promotions and raises are based on individual competition and is seen as a sign of personal success • Individual’s loyalty is to himself and not to the corporation

44. Lifetime Security • Japan – Lifetime job security is guaranteed • Employees expect to work for one corporation for their entire lives • They are expected to stick with the company through good times and bad • Workers do not go “job shopping” • When positions become obsolete, the corporation will retrain the workers for new positions within it

45. Lifetime Security • U.S. – There is very little lifetime security • The only positions that have tenure are some teaching and judicial positions • Corporations will lay off people in hard economic times, including laying off entire divisions • Workers tend to “job shop” and will move to another company for a better position

46. Holistic Involvement • Japan – Corporate life is tied into personal life • Both the corporation and the employee are committed for life and do things to help each other • The employee works long hours and is loyal to the corporation while the latter provides lifetime security, health services, social events, and home mortgages • Employee involvement continues outside the office where co-workers socialize

47. Holistic Involvement • U.S. – Work stays at work • Work is considered a temporary contract: when the work is done, the employee leaves • After-work hours are the private time of the employee • The workplace and the home are very distinct and there is no mingling

48. Broad Training • Japan – Workers are trained in all aspects of the corporation • Employees move from one job to another within the corporation to get a better idea of how it works • They are trained in all aspects of it, keeping in mind that the employee will remain with the company for life

49. Broad Training • U.S. – We focus on one job • Workers are highly specialized and tend to spend their entire lives doing one job • When a worker does well at a job, they are promoted to another with more responsibilities • Their view of the corporation is limited to their little niche in it

50. Collective Decision Making • Japan • Lengthy decision process involving all those who are affected • There is much discussion and a consensus is reached regarding what is best • U.S. • The decisions are made by key executives • The only people consulted may be a small group around the executives and possibly in the department being affected