Chapter 7 Conditioning and Learning

1. Chapter 7Conditioning and Learning

2. Some Key Terms • Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience • Does NOT include temporary changes due to disease, fatigue, injury, maturation, or drugs, since these do NOT qualify as learning, even though they can alter behavior

3. Motivation • Reinforcement: Any event that increases the probability that a response will recur • Response: Any identifiable behavior • Internal: Faster heartbeat • Observable: Eating, scratching • Antecedents: Events that precede a response • Consequences: Effects that follow a response

4. Classical Conditioning in Humans • Make a list of symbols that have emotional meaning for a specific group of people. For example, religious, political, or sexual symbols (words, objects, gestures) can provoke emotional responses. Explain these associations in terms of classical conditioning.

5. Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov • Russian physiologist who studied digestion • Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder • Also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning • Reflex: Automatic, non-learned response

6. In classical conditioning, a stimulus that does not produce a response is paired with a stimulus that does elicit a response. After many such pairings, the stimulus that previously had no effect begins to produce a response. In the example shown, a horn precedes a puffof air to the eye. Eventually the horn alone will produce an eye blink. In operant conditioning, a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a dog learns to sit up when it hears a whistle. Fig. 7-1, p. 220

7. Pavlovian Terms • Neutral stimulus: Stimulus that does not evoke a response • Conditioned stimulus (CS): Stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response • Unconditioned response (UCR): An innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) • Conditioned response (CR): A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

8. Fig. 7-2, p. 220

9. Fig. 7-3, p. 221

10. Principles of Classical Conditioning • Acquisition: Training period in conditioning when a response is strengthened • Higher-order conditioning: A conditioned stimulus (CS) is used to reinforce further learning; the CS is used as though it were a UCS • Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected • Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement • Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction

11. Fig. 7-4, p. 222

12. More Principles of Classical Conditioning • Stimulus generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer when the conditioning stimulus was a bell) • Stimulus discrimination: The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli (e.g., Anya will respond differently to various bells: alarms, school, timer)

13. Stimulus generalization. Stimuli similar to the CS also elicit a response. Fig. 7-6a, p. 223

14. This cat has learned to salivate when it sees a cat food box. Because of stimulus generalization, it also salivates when shown a similar-looking detergent box. Fig. 7-6b, p. 223

15. Classical Conditioning in Humans • Phobia: Fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists (e.g., arachnophobia; fear of spiders) • Conditioned emotional response (CER): Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus

16. Classical Conditioning • Why does your: • a. dog drool when you open the can of food before the food is given to him? • b. friend flinch when you tickle him or her? • c. little sister tremble at the sound of a dentist’s drill? • d. fellow student begin blushing before he or she is called on to give a speech? • e. stomach churn when the teacher says, “Take out a piece of paper and put your name at the top”?

17. Fixing Phobias • Desensitization: Decreasing fear or anxiety by exposing phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed • Vicarious classical conditioning: Learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another’s emotional reactions

18. Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia. Child approaches dog (a) and is frightened by it (b). Fear generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry animals (d). Fig. 7-7, p. 224

19. Stimulus Generalization What is the relationship between stimulus generalization and discrimination, and gender, ethnic, or racial stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination? In what ways are these processes similar or different?

20. Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning) • Learning is based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses with their consequences • Law of effect (Thorndike): The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has: responses that lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to undesired effects are not

21. More Operant Conditioning Terms • Conditioning chamber (Skinner box): Apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals • Response-contingent reinforcement: Reinforcement given after a desired response occurs

22. Figure 7.8 Assume that a child who is learning to talk points to her favorite doll and says either “doll,” “duh,” or “dat” when she wants it. Day 1 shows the number of times the child uses each word to ask for the doll (each block represents one request). At first, she uses all three words interchangeably. To hasten learning, her parents decide to give her the doll only when she names it correctly. Notice how the child’s behavior shifts as operant reinforcement is applied. By day 20, saying “doll” has become the most probable response. Fig. 7-8, p. 226

23. The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released. Fig. 7-9, p. 226

24. Timing of Reinforcement • Operant reinforcement most effective when given immediately after a correct response • Response chain: A linked series of actions that leads to reinforcement • Superstitious behaviors: Behaviors that are repeated because they appear to produce reinforcement, even though they are not necessary

25. Shaping • Molding responses gradually in a step-by-step fashion to a desired pattern • Successive approximations: Ever-closer matches

26. Reinforcement • Positive reinforcement: When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event • Negative reinforcement: When a response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant event (e.g., the bells in Fannie’s car stop when she puts the seatbelt on); ends discomfort

27. Punishment • Any event that follows a response and decreases the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., a spanking) • Response cost: Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made (e.g., Bob losing Xbox360 privileges)

28. Operant Reinforcers • Primary reinforcer: Non-learned and natural; satisfies physiological needs (e.g., food, water, sex) • Intracranial stimulation (ICS): Natural primary reinforcer; involves direct activation of brain’s “pleasure centers” • Secondary reinforcer: Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval, praise); gains reinforcing properties by associating with a primary reinforcer

29. Other Types of Reinforcers • Token reinforcer: Tangible secondary reinforcer (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips) • Social reinforcer: attention and approval (reinforcers) provided by other people

30. Humans have been “wired” for brain stimulation, as shown in (a). Occasionally done as an experimental way to restrain uncontrollable outbursts of violence, temporary implants have rarely been done merely to produce pleasure. Most research has been carried out with rats. Using the apparatus shown in (b), the rat can press a bar to deliver mild electric stimulation to a “pleasure center” in the brain. Fig. 7-12, p. 230

31. Poker chips normally have little or no value for chimpanzees, but this chimp will work hard to earn them once he learns that the “Chimp-O-Mat” will dispense food in exchange for them. Fig. 7-13, p. 231

32. Reinforcement in a token economy. This graph shows the effects of using tokens to reward socially desirable behavior in a mental hospital ward. Desirable behavior was defined as cleaning, making the bed, attending therapy sessions, and so forth. Tokens earned could be exchanged for basic amenities such as meals, snacks, coffee, game-room privileges, or weekend passes. The graph shows more than 24 hours per day because it represents the total number of hours of desirable behavior performed by all patients in the ward. Fig. 7-14, p. 231

33. Feedback • Information about the effect of a response • Knowledge of results (KR): Informational feedback; almost always improves learning and performance • Example of quizzes:

34. Programmed Instruction • Any learning format where information is presented in small amounts, gives immediate practice, and provides continuous feedback • Computer-assisted instruction (CAI): Learning is aided by computer-presented information and exercises • Educational simulations: Explore imaginary situations or “microworld” that simulates real-world problems (e.g., The Sims)

35. Computer-assisted instruction. The screen on the left shows a typical drill-and-practice math problem, in which students must find the hypotenuse of a triangle. The center screen presents the same problem as an instructional game to increase interest and motivation. In the game, a child is asked to set the proper distance on a ray gun in the hovering space ship to “vaporize” an attacker. The screen on the right depicts an educational simulation. Here, students place a “probe” at various spots in a human brain. They then “stimulate,” “destroy,” or “restore” areas. As each area is altered, it is named on the screen and the effects on behavior are described. This allows students to explore basic brain functions on their own. Fig. 7-16, p. 234

36. Reinforcement Concepts • Schedules of reinforcement: Plans for determining which responses will be reinforced • Continuous reinforcement: A reinforcer follows every correct response • Partial reinforcement: Reinforcers do NOT follow every response • Partial reinforcement effect: Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction

37. Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR) • A set number of correct responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer • Variable Ratio Schedule (VR) Varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer • Fixed Interval Schedule (FI) A reinforcer is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response • Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Reinforcement is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response

38. Reinforcement Schedules • Stereotypes have developed about the “work ethic” of different cultures. Does your ethnic group or culture focus more on immediate or delayed reinforcers? • Ask students to think about which schedule works best for completing items on an assembly line, assuming workers are paid for each item assembled. Which schedule works best in a casino when someone plays the slot machines? Which schedule works best when someone has to babysit a child for a certain number of hours?

39. Fig. 7-17, p. 235

40. Stimulus Control • Stimuli that consistently precede a rewarded response tend to influence when and where the response will occur • Operant stimulus generalization: Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded operant reinforcement • Operant stimulus discrimination: Occurs when one learns to differentiate between antecedent stimuli that signal either an upcoming reward or a nonreward condition

41. Punishment • Punisher: Any consequence that reduces the frequency of a target behavior • Keys: Timing, consistency, and intensity • Severe punishment: Intense punishment, capable of suppressing a response for a long period • Mild punishment: Weak punishment; usually slows responses temporarily

42. Punishment Concepts • Aversive stimulus: Stimulus that is painful or uncomfortable (e.g., a shock) • Escape learning: Learning to make a response to end an aversive stimulus • Avoidance learning: Learning to make a response to avoid, postpone, or prevent discomfort (e.g., not going to a doctor or dentist) • Punishment may also increase aggression • What view did your family and friends of your parents take toward physical punishment?What cultural factors explain why some parents spank and others don’t?

43. Cognitive Learning • Cognitive learning: Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipating • Cognitive map: Internal images or other mental representations of an area (maze, city, etc.) that underlie an ability to choose alternate paths to the same goal

44. More Learning Styles • Latent learning: Occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not demonstrated (or is hidden) until reinforcement is provided • Rote learning: Takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning a set of rules • Discovery learning: Based on insight and understanding

45. Fig. 7-21, p. 242

46. Fig. 7-22, p. 243

47. Modeling or Observational Learning (Albert Bandura) • Model: Someone who serves as an example in observational learning • Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person or by noting consequences of a person’s actions • Occurs before direct practice is allowed

48. Do Actions Speak Louder Than Words? • Students stand and face the back of the room. One student comes to the front of the class and will engage in an activity with me. They will make some motions and describe what to do physically to the rest of the class. The class is to make the same motions, and guess what common action they are performing.

49. Steps to Successful Modeling • Pay attention to model • Remember what was done • Observer must be able to reproduce modeled behavior • If a model is successful or his/her behavior is rewarded, behavior more likely to recur • Bandura created modeling theory with classic Bo-Bo doll (inflatable clown) experiments

50. A nursery school child imitates the aggressive behavior of an adult model he has just seen in a movie. Fig. 7-23, p. 244