Chapter 8 Conditioning and Learning

1. Chapter 8 Conditioning and Learning

2. Difference between learned and unlearned behavior Classical Conditioning Operant conditioning Skinner, Pavlov Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Generalization Discrimination Higher-order conditioning Effects of reinforcement and punishment Reinforcement and omission training Behavior modification Active and passive avoidance Cognitive Processes Social Learning Practice, schedules, delay of reinforcement, motivation Graphs used to show results of experiments Principles of learning and practical applications Emotional learning Taste aversion Coping versus helplessness Biofeedback Self control Biological Factors Biological constraints of learning Insight Latent learning Social learning AP Outline Key Terms

3. Principles of learning reveal: To understand behavior To manage behavior Pavlov, Skinner, Watson- Little Albert, Bandura Most learning is done by observing and imitating actions of others Basics Learning and Conditioning

4. Definitions • Learning is a relatively permanentchange in behavior due to experience. • Reinforcement- is important to learning any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again. • Response- is any identifiable behavior • Can be observable actions • Can be internal = heartbeat increases

5. Example of Learning • Teaching a dog a trick- • Reinforce response by -giving dog food

6. Classical Conditioning “A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that reliably provokes a response.” A Neutral Stimulus only by association begins to elicit a response. Primary Definitions

7. Antecedents and Consequences • Relates to what happens before and after a response. • Antecedent- events that precede a response • Consequence- effects that follow a response

8. Classical Conditioning • “Before a response” • “A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that reliably provokes a response.” • A Neutral Stimulus only by association begins to elicit a response. • “Antecedent events become associated with one another” • A stimulus that does not produce a response is linked with one that does. • Learning occurs when new stimulus elicits a response

9. Classical Conditioning Example • Stimulus that reliably triggers a response- • Puff of Air to the Eye -- causes a blink (Natural Stimulus) (reflex- non-learned response) • Sound of horn is paired with puff of air • Repetition of paired stimulus causes association of horn with puff of air. Soon horn will make people blink

10. Create an Example of Classical Conditioning • Maximum two people • No repeat examples

11. Key Terms reinforced • (NS) Neutral Stimulus= Bell • (CS) Conditioned Stimulus- a stimulus that = learning and evokes a desired response – (NS becomes CS) • (US) Unconditioned Stimulus- or natural stimulus=meat stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response. • (UR) Unconditioned Response= non-learned, reflex, innate

12. Principles of Classical ConditioningHow conditioning occurs. • Acquisition- or training – a conditioned response must be reinforced (strengthened) • Classical conditioning is reinforced when the conditioned stimulus is paired with an Unconditioned Response. • * the US must follow immediately for conditioning to work. • Higher-Order Conditioning- once a response is learned it can be used like an Unconditioned stimulus and be paired with another neutral stimulus to form a new conditioned stimulus (advertisers use)

13. Principles of Classical ConditioningHow conditioning occurs. • Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected • Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement • Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction

14. Conditioning Principles • Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell) • Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer))

15. Classical Conditioning • Is passive. • It happens to the learner when a US follows a CS. • It depends on reflex responses

16. Conditioned Emotional Response • Emotional responses may be linked to new stimuli • Pain in dentist office -thought causes reaction • Response of Involuntary Autonomic Nervous system “Fight or flight response” • Linked with new stimuli and situations through Classical Conditioning

17. Learned Fears are Phobias • Phobias are based on Emotional Conditioning • A fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists. • Animals, waters, heights, thunder, fire, bugs • Therapy for phobias includes Desensitization- • Is used to extinguish fears- anxiety and phobias • Includes gradual exposure to phobic stimuli- short term and more time.

18. Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov • Russian physiologist who studied digestion • Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder • Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning • Reflex: Automatic, non-learned response

19. In operant conditioning, a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a dog learns to sit up when it hears a whistle

20. Fig. 8.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments.

21. Operant Conditioning • Responsesfollowed by reinforcement cause frequency of response to increase. • Learning is based on consequences of responding • Responses are followed by reinforces • Example: • Wear a hat--get compliments  Wear hat _(Antecedent)_(Reinforcement)____more get more complements (Consequence)

22. Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning • Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another person’s reactions. • We can be conditioned vicariously

23. Operant Conditioning Edward Thorndike (Law of Effect) B.F. Skinner • Applies to all living creatures • Can be used to alter behavior • We associate responses with their consequences • Acts that are reinforced tend to be repeated. • Law of Effect: The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has) • Learning is strengthened each time a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs.

24. Operant Conditioning Characteristics • Learner Actively “Operates on” the environment • Refers mainly to learning voluntary responses • Example: T.V. Remote Pushing the button is reinforced by gaining the result

25. Fig. 8.9 The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released. (A photograph of a Skinner box appears in Chapter 1.) Conditioning Chamber Animals take action to satisfy needs. Behavior causes consequences  reinforces behavior

26. Positive Reinforcement • Idea that reward affects learning • Operant Reinforcers = any event that follows a response and increases its probability of occurring again.

27. Operant Learning • Based on information and expectancy • A certain response (behavior)- will have a certain effect at certain times

28. Operant Conditioning Characteristics • Contingent Reinforcement • Reinforcement works best when given • after - desired response has occurred. • Timing of Reinforcement is also important- Operant Reinforcement is most effective when it rapidly follows a correct response. • Delay in reinforcement = less response

29. Shaping • The gradual molding of responses to a desired pattern • (animals taught to perform) • Beginning incremental- reinforcement till desired response occurs • Step by step approximations- are refined

30. Operant Extinction • Learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade away • Takes time • Spontaneous recovery still works

31. Superstitious Behavior • Unnecessary responses associated with successful Reinforcers • Appear to produce reinforcement • Skinner- pigeon study

33. The difference between Positive Punishment and Negative Reinforcement: • Reinforcement is to INCREASE frequency of behavior.  • Punishment DECREASES behavior.  So it's just what you do to increase or decrease behavior.  • Positive means ADD (like in math) and negative means SUBTRACT.  So Positive Punishment is ADDING something to DECREASE behavior.  Negative Reinforcement is SUBTRACTING something to INCREASE behavior.  • Ex:   Positive Punishment- ADDING detention to DECREASE tardiness if someone is late to class (ADD aversivestimulus) • Negative Reinforcement-SUBTRACTING chores in order to INCREASE frequency of good grades when a son or daughter • brings home good report card (SUBTRACT aversive stimulus) • People like to get Negative Reinforcement, whereas people usually do not like to get Positive Punishment. • You just have to look at whether you want the behavior to increase or decrease in frequency, and whether something is being added or subtracted in order to get to that point.

34. Negative Reinforcement • Making a response removes an unpleasant event • Increases responding by ending discomfort • Headache-discomfort---take aspirin headache will be negatively reinforced • Rat given electric shock-presses bar to remove shock <removes unpleasant event> • Punishment is not negative reinforcement

35. Both Positive and Negative reinforcement • Lead to increases in response (behaviors) frequencies • Negative – action to end discomfort • Positive- action to get reward

36. Punishment • Decreases responding • Refers to following a response with an aversive <unpleasant> consequence • Punishment decreases the response or the likelihood that the response will occur again. • Punishment occurs when a reinforcer or positive state of affairs is removed example- privileges

37. Operant Reinforcers • Primary Reinforcers • Secondary Reinforcers • Feedback

38. Primary Reinforcers • Natural, Non-learned, Rooted in Biology • Produce comfort, End discomfort • Fill an immediate physical need- food, water, sex • Actions reflect primary Reinforcers

39. Intra-Cranial Stimulation • Direct activation of pleasure centers • Example- Rat Experiments • Primary Reinforcer

40. Secondary Reinforcers • Learned • $, praise, attention, approval • Success, affection, grades • Can be associated with a primary reinforcer (food + secondary –praise) • Token reinforcer- a tangible , secondary reinforcer can be exchanged for primary reinforcer • Don’t lose reinforcing value-easily

41. Social Reinforcers • Learned desires for attention and approval • Attention + approval can change the behavior

42. Feedback • Definition: Knowing level of degree of achieving desired results • Learning needs responsive environment + information • Knowledge of results information about the effect a response had • Provides rapid learning • Improves learning and performance • Should be Frequent, Immediate, and detailed

43. Operant Conditioning • Continuous reinforcement- reinforcement follows correct responses • Partial Reinforcement Effect- not every response is reinforced (gambling) • Behavior is highly resistant to extinction • Makes habit stronger • Due to expectations for reinforcement • Schedules of Reinforcement