Understanding Learning & Conditioning in Psychology

Learning and Conditioning

Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience Behaviorism An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior Conditioning A kind of learning that involves the association between environmental stimuli and the organism’s responses Definitions

The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar response Pavlov’s Dogs Classical conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (US) Elicits a response in the absence of learning Unconditioned response (UR) The reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning New reflexes from old

Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus is then regularly paired with an unconditioned stimulus New reflexes from old

Conditioned stimulus (CS) An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned response (CR) A response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus Occurs after the CS has been associated with the US Is usually similar to the UR New reflexes from old

You are visiting a house to see if you want to buy it. When you step through the front door, you are met with the smell of oatmeal chocolate chip cookies—just like your grandmother used to make. Suddenly you find yourself feeling that this house is a warm and friendly place. In this scenario, what is the CS? 1. The smell of oatmeal chocolate chip cookies 2. The new house 3. Your grandma 4. The feeling of warmth and friendliness Your turn

Extinction Higher-order conditioning Stimulus generalization Stimulus discrimination Principles of classical conditioning

The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response In classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Extinction

A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus. Higher-order conditioning

After conditioning, the tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles one involved in the original conditioning In classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus that resembles the CS elicits the CR. Stimulus generalization

The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli In classical conditioning, occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS fails to evoke a CR. Stimulus discrimination

For classical conditioning to be most effective, the stimulus to be conditioned should precede the unconditioned stimulus. We learn that the first stimulus predicts the second (Rescorla, 1988). What is actually learned in classical conditioning?

Where do sentimental feelings come from? Objects have been associated in the past with positive feelings. Advertisers use classical conditioning to make a product more appealing. Learning to like

Research suggests we can learn fear through association. Watson and Raynor conditioned “Little Albert” to be afraid of white rats by pairing the neutral stimulus (rats) with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noise). Within days, Albert was afraid of rats, and his fear generalized to other furry objects. Learning to fear

Accounting for taste • Slugs learned an aversion to the smell of carrots, which they normally like, after the smell of carrots was paired with a bitter-tasting chemical. • Ex. Psychologist Martin Seligman developed an aversion to béarnaise sauce after he came down with the flu following a meal of filet mignon with béarnaise sauce.

Reacting to medical treatments Some cancer patients react to waiting rooms with nausea, because the waiting room has been associated with chemotherapy, which chemically causes nausea.

The process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur depending on its consequences Operant conditioning

To understand behavior it is necessary to focus on the external causes of an action and the action’s consequences. To explain behavior, one must look outside the individual, not inside. Radical behaviorism

Reinforcement: strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recur Punishment: weakens a response or makes it less likely to recur Consequences of behavior

Primary reinforcers Inherently reinforcing and typically satisfy a physiological need. Secondary reinforcers Stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through associations with other reinforcers Types of reinforcers

Positive reinforcement When a response is followed by the presentation of or increase in intensity of a pleasurable stimulus. Negative reinforcement When a response is followed by the removal of or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus. Types of reinforcement

Primary punishers Inherently punishing Secondary punishers Stimuli that have acquired punishing properties through associations with other punishers Types of punishers

Positive punishment When an unpleasant consequence follows a response, making the response less likely to recur Negative punishment When a pleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response less likely to recur Types of punishment

Your first time camping in the woods, you are bitten over 45 times by mosquitoes, resulting in lots of swollen, itchy bumps on your arms, legs, and back. You never want to go camping again. What kind of consequence did you confront on your first camping experience? 1. Positive reinforcement 2. Negative reinforcement 3. Positive punishment 4. Negative punishment Your turn

The Skinner box

Extinction In operant conditioning, occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer Stimulus generalization A response that is triggered by one reinforcer may occur in the presence of a different, similar reinforcer. Stimulus discrimination A response that occurs in response to one reinforcer, and does not occur as a result of other, similar reinforcers Principles of operant conditioning

Continuous reinforcement A schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a response is reinforced (Extinction will be immediate) Intermittent (or partial) reinforcement (Best choice for continuation of response) Only some occurrences of a response are reinforced. Four possible schedules: 1. Fixed ratio: rewards offered after a set number of responses. (Being paid per item you sew, factory quotas) 2. Variable ratio: rewards offered after an unpredictable number of responses. (slot machines, hitting in a batting cage) 3.Fixed interval: rewards offered after a fixed time period. (semester grades, monthly paychecks) 4.Variable interval: rewards offered after varying time periods. (pop quizzes, arrival of the mail, fishing) Schedules of reinforcement

In order for a response to persist after it was learned, you must use continuous reinforcement. True False Which is correct?

To teach complex behaviors, one may need to reinforce successive approximations of a desired response. Instinctive drift - the tendency for an organism to revert to instinctive behavior Shaping

Maintained that private internal events – perceptions, emotions, and thoughts – are as real as any others, and we can study them by studying our own sensory experiences Insisted, however, that thoughts and feelings cannot explain behavior These components of consciousness are themselves simply behaviors that occur because of reinforcement and punishment. Skinner

The application of operant conditioning techniques To teach new responses To reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior Also called applied behavior analysis Behavior modification

When does punishment work? • Research supports the idea that the most important factor in the successful use of punishment is consistency. • If punishment is intermittent, it can lead to unintentional reinforcement during the times when punishment does not occur.

When it is administered inappropriately or mindlessly When the recipient responds with anxiety, fear, or rage When it does not occur immediately after the behavior it intends to discourage When it conveys little information When it unintentionally reinforces an action When does punishment fail

Which is correct? Punishment can deter some young criminals from repeating their offenses. A. True B. False

Extrinsic reinforcers Reinforcers not inherently related to the behavior being reinforced Intrinsic reinforcers Reinforcers inherently related to the behavior being reinforced Extrinsic reinforcers may undermine intrinsic reinforcers. Extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcers

Sometimes learning occurs even when it is not immediately demonstrated. Rats learned even without showing it. Latent learning

Social-cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained. Through observation and imitation of others Positive consequences Cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs Observational learning involves learning new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience. Social learning

Meta-analysis shows that greater exposure to violence is related to more aggressive behavior when controlled for social class, intelligence, and other factors. Other researchers are less concerned because they believe that media violence does not cause most viewers to become aggressive. Aggressive individuals may be drawn to violent programming. Media violence

Understanding Learning & Conditioning in Psychology