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Overview of air pollution

This talk provides an overview of air pollution, focusing on common outdoor pollutants, their sources, and the health effects they have on humans. Topics include ozone layer depletion, greenhouse gases, acid rain, and air toxics.

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Overview of air pollution

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  1. Overview of air pollution A/Prof Bin Jalaludin MBBS, MPH, PhD, MRCP (UK), FAFPHM South Western Sydney Area Health Service, and University of New South Wales

  2. This talk • Will give an overview of air pollution • Will mainly focus on the common outdoor air pollutants • Will discuss types of air pollutants • Will discuss sources of air pollutants • Will discuss health effects of air pollution

  3. Air pollution – the problem • Global • Ozone layer depletion • Greenhouse effect • Regional • Acid rain • Haze and photochemical smog • Local • Indoor (homes, factories, offices)

  4. Air pollution – the problem

  5. Effects of human activities on the atmosphere (NSW SOE 2000)

  6. Ozone Layer Depletion • Stratospheric ozone reduces harmful UV radiation • Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halons, methyl bromide • Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

  7. The vertical distribution of ozone in the atmosphere at mid-latitudes (Commonwealth SOE 2001) Source: after WMO (1999)

  8. Postulated steps from the release of halocarbons to increase in UV related biological damage Halocarbons release chlorine and bromine ‘radicals’ 1 Chlorine and bromine ‘radicals’ destroy ozone molecules 2 Stratospheric ozone layer depleted 3 Increase in ultraviolet irradiance at ground level 4 Increase in ultraviolet-related biological damage Source: McMichael 1993

  9. Average stratospheric ozone concentrations for the month of October(NSW SOE 2000) Source: Bureau of Meteorology data, as at 1999

  10. Concentrations of ozone-depleting substances, Cape Grim, Tasmania(NSW SOE 2000) Source: CSIRO data, as at 1999

  11. Past and future stratospheric chlorine levels (ppb, cumulative) of the major ozone-depleting substances (Commonwealth SOE 2001) Source: Madronich and Velders (1999).

  12. Greenhouse Gases • Naturally occurring gases - CO, methane • Anthropogenic gases – CO2, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

  13. Source: CSIRO Atmospheric Research.

  14. Annual Australian mean minimum temperature anomalies. (Commonwealth SOE 2001) Source: Bureau of Meteorology

  15. Gas Global warming potential over 100 years Carbon dioxide 1 Methane 24 Nitrous oxide 360 Chlorofluorocarbon-11 4 600 Chlorofluorocarbon-12 10 600 Hydrofluorocarbons 10-14 800 Sulfur hexafluoride 22 200 Other perfluorocarbons 5 700-11 400 Source: Granier and Shine (1999). Global warming potentials of greenhouse gases Potentials are expressed as a multiple of the global warming potential of carbon dioxide.(Commonwealth SOE 2001)

  16. Carbon dioxide concentrations, Cape Grim, Tasmania (NSW SOE 2000) Source: CSIRO data, as at 2000

  17. Methane concentrations, Cape Grim, Tasmania (NSW SOE 2000) Source: CSIRO data, as at 2000

  18. Nitrous oxide concentrations, Cape Grim, Tasmania (NSW SOE 2000) Source: CSIRO data, as at 2000

  19. Acid Rain • Emissions of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen produce Acid Aerosols - H2SO4, HNO3 (also regional pollutant) • Coal fired (and oil fired) power plants • Trans-boundary issue (especially in Europe and North America)

  20. Annual emissions of sulfur dioxide (as millions of tonnes of sulfur, MtS) and the atmospheric sulfur dioxide cycle. (Commonwealth SOE 2001)

  21. Health Effects of Global Environmental Changes

  22. Possible adverse effects upon human health caused by global environmental changes A The designations ‘early’ and ‘late’ are notional, and indicate relative timing. (Based on McMichael, 1993.3)

  23. Possible adverse effects upon human health caused by global environmental changes (cont.) A The designations ‘early’ and ‘late’ are notional, and indicate relative timing. (Based on McMichael, 1993.3)

  24. Regional/Local Air Pollutants • Criteria (Common) Air Pollutants - (ambient air quality standards established) • Regional • Photochemical smog - Ozone (O3) • Haze - Particulates (PM) & Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) • Local • Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) • Carbon Monoxide (CO) • Lead (Pb) • Air Toxics - (often no standards)

  25. Air toxics or Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPS) – a definition “gaseous, aerosol or particulate pollutants (other than the six criteria pollutants) that are present in the air in low concentrations with characteristics such as toxicity or persistence so as to be a hazard to human, plant or animal life”

  26. Air Toxics / HAPS • Diverse range of toxic compounds • Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) • formaldehyde: lung, eye, skin irritants • benzene, 1,3-butadiene: carcinogens • Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) • DDT, PCB, dioxins: toxic, persistent, bioaccumulate • Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) • Benzo[a]pyrene: Incomplete combustion of organic matter – lung cancer, immune system suppression, respiratory problems • Toxic Metals (associated with PM or as gases) • Arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel, chromium: persistent, bioaccumulate, toxic - kidney/liver damage, CNS disorders

  27. Air Toxics / HAPs • Diverse range of point and diffuse sources • point sources: industries and other facilities emitting in a localised area • diffuse sources: mobile sources (eg: road vehicles, boats), area based sources (eg: wood burning, dry cleaning, paints, thinners) • Indoor / in vehicle exposures • Increasing regulatory / public concern • Generally little or no exposure data • US EPA - list of 189 HAPs (1990)

  28. Air pollutant Score Health effects Benzene 9 Carcinogenic, causes anaemia 1,3-Butadiene 8 Carcinogen Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) 8 Carcinogen, environmentally persistent Arsenic and compounds 8 Carcinogen, environmentally persistent Chromium and compounds 8 Carcinogen, affects respiratory system, inhalation can damage nose, throat, lungs, stomach and intestines, environmentally persistent. May lead to asthma, other allergic reactions, stomach upsets, ulcers, convulsions and kidney damage Nickel and compounds 8 Carcinogen, can affect the respiratory system, environmentally persistent Cadmium and compoundsA 7 Carcinogen linked to prostate and kidney cancer in humans and also to lung and testicular cancer in animals. Smoke from burning cadmium or cadmium oxide can, in severe cases, affect respiratory system, environmentally persistent Dioxins and furans 7 Carcinogen, skin disease, environmentally persistent and bioaccumulates Mercury 7 Can cause reproductive problems, environmentally persistent, bioaccumulates Dichloromethane 5 Probable carcinogen, moderately persistent in the environment. High concentrations may cause unconsciousness and death. Exposure may irritate lungs, cause pulmonary oedema and irregular heartbeat. Long-term exposures at high level may damage the liver and brain Formaldehyde 5 Carcinogen, irritates the skin, eye and respiratory system, and can exacerbate asthma Styrene 5 Possible carcinogen 1,4-Dichlorobenzene 3 Probable carcinogen, moderately persistent in the environment Tetrachloroethylene 3 Probable carcinogen Manganese compounds 3 Can affect brain function, moderately persistent in the environment A higher score indicates a more serious concern. Source: EPAV (1999c). List of priority hazardous air pollutants(Commonwealth SOE 2001)

  29. NEPMS (standards) to be developed for 5 air toxics in Australia • benzene • formaldehyde • polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons • toluene • xylenes

  30. Criteria for selection for inclusion: • Excluded air toxics from point sources • Adequate ambient monitoring data exists • Significant risk to human health • Has highest mass emissions to the environment

  31. Review of air toxics and health studies in Australia • WA Department of Environmental Protection: • Found 10 studies • 9 studies addressed air toxics and health • 1 study measured personal exposure • 1 study in the ambient setting, 9 in occupational/indoor settings • Formaldehyde was the most researched air toxic Source: State of knowledge report: Air toxics and indoor air quality in Australia. (EA, 2001)

  32. Indoor air pollution • Indoor air can be defined as any non-industrial indoor space where a person spends a period of an hour or more in any day. • This can include the air space in the office, classroom, motor vehicle, shopping centre, hospital and home.

  33. Indoor air pollution • The quality of indoor air is influenced by two major factors: • amount and quality of outdoor air getting in (ventilation rates, deposition and chemical decay) • indoor sources of emissions of air pollutants

  34. Indoor air pollution • In winter 80 - 90% of time indoors - mostly in own home • A number of important indoor air pollutants • Particles • Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) • Oxides of nitrogen • Formaldehyde • Biological pollutants – house dust mites, moulds, etc

  35. Relationships between indoor and outdoor concentration of air pollutants(Commonwealth SOE 2001) Pollutant ci/caA gB NO2 0.7 0.72 O3 0.4 0.44 SO2 0.3 0.34 CO 1 1 Particles 1 1 Lead 0.5 0.53 A Indoor (c i) and outdoor (c a) concentrations of air pollutants. B Ratio of indoor exposure to outdoor exposure. Source: Beer and Walsh (1997).

  36. Particles in homes - no major sources Source: V Sheppeard, NSW Health

  37. Fine particle (PM10) levels by number of smokers in house Source: V Sheppeard, NSW Health

  38. Fine particle (PM10) levels by main heating type Source: V Sheppeard, NSW Health

  39. Average levels of total suspended particles in selected Sydney clubs & hotels (NSW SOE 2001) Source: Cummins et al. 1990

  40. Average weekly nitrogen dioxide levels in homes Source: V Sheppeard, NSW Health

  41. Peak 1-hour average concentrations of nitrogen dioxide, indoors & outdoors, 1987-97 (NSW SOE 2000) Source: Ferrari 1997

  42. In car carbon monoxide levels Source: CARB 1998; V Sheppeard, NSW Health

  43. Other in-car exposures (VIC EPA - mean personal concentrations while commuting to CBD (east route) - pilot trial) Source: V Sheppeard, NSW Health

  44. Air toxics in other microenvironments Source: WA DEP; V Sheppeard, NSW Health

  45. Burden of disease attributable to indoor smoke from solid fuels(% DALYs in each subregion)(The World Health Report 2002)

  46. Ambient air pollution

  47. Kuching, Sarawak 1997 Forest Fires

  48. A historical perspective of air pollution • In 1273, England’s King Edward I passed a law prohibiting the use of at least one type of coal • In the early 1400's, Henry V formed a commission to oversee the use of coal in the city of London • In 1661, Charles II ordered the scientist John Evelyn to survey the effects of the increasing air pollution over the city. Evelyn recognised the relationship between the ‘dismal cloud’ over London and a number of fatal diseases but his warnings of the need for control were ignored

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