BUSINESS RESEARCH

BUSINESS RESEARCH Lecture 8 Collecting qualitative data Business Research

Learning objectives • After studying this topic, you should be able to • Describe methods based on interviews • Describe methods based on diaries • Describe methods based on observation • Compare the strengths and weaknesses of methods • Choose a method that reflects your paradigm • Independent study • Study Chapter 8 • Activities and progress test as set Business Research

Introduction • It is the research data rather than the method of collection that can be described as quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (non-numerical) • Data can be primary (new) or secondary (existing) • Interpretivists will want to collect qualitative data • Positivists may also collect some which they will later quantify, especially if they use methodological triangulation (see Chapter 5) • You need to describe and justify the method(s) you use to collect your research data in your methodology chapter Business Research

Data collection in the context of the research process Business Research

Interviews • An interview is ‘ a method for collecting primary data in which a sample of interviewees are asked questions to find out what they think, do or feel’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 144) • Interviews can be conducted with individuals or groups, using face-to-face, telephone, email or video conferencing methods • Interpretivists prefer unstructured interviews (questions not planned in advance) and open questions • Positivists use structured interviews with closed questions Business Research

Interviews - Advantages and problems • Advantages • You can ask complex questions and use probes • Potential problems • Access to participants (interpretivists) or to a representative sample (positivists) • Cost (time, expense) and risk (personal security) • Permission to record data (audio, video, notes) • Concerns about confidentiality/anonymity • Interviewee wearing more than one hat • Interviewer bias (no approval/disapproval) • Ensuring stimulus equivalence (positivists) Business Research

Critical incident technique • Interviews are not merely idle conversations - you are trying to get in-depth and authentic knowledge • One way to do this is to use critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954), which is ‘a method for collecting data about a defined activity or event based on the participant’s recollections of key facts’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p.147) • Interpretivists use it in unstructured interviews • Positivists use it in structured interviews or questionnaires Business Research

Example of critical incident techniqueResearch problem: Access to finance • Please think about an occasion when the business was seeking finance • How much was required and for what purpose? • Can you tell me what happened from the beginning? • Probes • Did you seek any advice? If so, at what stage, from whom and what advice did you receive? • How did you select the potential source(s) of finance? • What information were you asked to supply? • Were any applications unsuccessful? If so, what were the reasons? Business Research

Exercise 1Critical incident technique What are the advantages and potential problems of using critical incident technique? Jot down a few notes Business Research

Solution 1Critical incident technique • Advantages • Simple to use • Creates focus as interviewee talks about issues in the context of his or her experience and discourages interviewee from talking about hypothetical situations • Potential problems • Interviewee’s reason for choosing the event is not known • Important facts may have been forgotten • Post-rationalisation may have taken place (the interviewee recounts the events with a degree of logic and coherence that did not exist at the time) Business Research

Protocol analysis (Clarkson, 1962) • Protocol analysis is ‘a method for collecting data used to identify a practitioner’s mental processes in solving a problem in a particular situation, including the logic and methods used’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 148) • The researcher gives a written problem to a practitioner who is experienced in that field • As the practitioner addresses the problem, he or she gives verbal explanations which are recorded by the researcher • A protocol is a transcript of the verbalization Business Research

Protocol analysisAdvantages and problems • Advantages • Reduces the risk of interviewer bias • Reduces the possibility of omitting potentially important areas or aspects • Technique is open-ended and flexible • Potential problems • Time-consuming and labour intensive (Bolton, 1991) • Retrospective verbalization does not represent a real-time situation, but rather an action replay (Day, 1986) • Concurrent verbalization may be too time-consuming as the researcher must maintain a continuous presence Business Research

Repertory grid technique (Kelly, 1955) • Repertory grid technique is ‘a method based on personal construct theory that generates a mathematical representation of a participant’s perceptions and constructs’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p.150) during a structured interview • A grid is generated using the interviewee’s notions of the concepts under discussion (the elements) and attributes of the elements (the constructs) • Interpretivists get a mental map of how each interviewee views the world and can interpret the emerging patterns • Positivists collect quantitative data for statistical analysis Business Research

Procedure for constructing a repertory grid Determine the focus of the grid Determine the elements in advance or agree them with the interviewee (approx 5 – 10) Write each element on a separate card Decide whether to use 2 cards (dyads) or 3 (triads) and randomly select the appropriate number of cards Ask the interviewee to provide a word/phrase that describes each similarity or difference between pairs of elements and use these words as the constructs on the grid Explain the rating scale (eg 5 = high, 1 = low) Ask the interviewee to indicate the number closest to his/her view and explain the reason Business Research

An employee’s constructs of organizational systemsAdapted from Dunn and Ginsberg (1986, p. 964) Business Research

Exercise 2Repertory grid technique The structured and quantitative approach of repertory grid technique gives rise to controversy over its suitability for an interpretive study In addition to recording the interviewee’s rating scores on the grid, what else might an interpretivist want to record to support his or her interpretation of the grid? Business Research

Solution 2Repertory grid technique Ask the interviewee to generate the elements and constructs, but also to explain why they have chosen each element and what each construct means Ask the interviewee to explain why he or she has given a particular rating score to each pairing Record all stages (audio and notes) Business Research

Diary methods • A diary is ‘a method of collecting data where selected participants are asked to record relevant information in diary forms or booklets over a specified period of time (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 152) • A log is a detailed record of time spent on activities (preferred by positivists) • A diary is a descriptive record of participant’s daily life • A diary-interview is where detailed questions are developed from the diary and used as the basis of an in-depth interview with the diarist (Plummer, 1983) Business Research

Diary methodsAdvantages and disadvantages • Advantages • Greater coverage of types and locations of participants • Participants classify their activities, rather than an observer who may not have the technical knowledge • All time can be recorded, rather than when an observer is present • Potential problems • Selecting participants who can express themselves well • Providing encouragement over the record-keeping period • Risk of recording bias by participants • Comparison may be difficult if sample is not homogenous Business Research

Observation • Observation is ‘a method for collecting data used in a laboratory or natural setting to observe and record people’s actions and behaviour’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 154) • Non-participant observation (researcher is not involved) • Participant observation (researcher is fully involved) • Potential problems • Access, ethics, cost/time, how to record the data • Demand characteristics (effect of researcher’s presence) • Researcher bias (eg one observer interprets action differently from a co-researcher) Business Research

Focus groups • A focus group is ‘a method for collecting data whereby selected participants discuss their reactions and feelings about a product, service, situation or concept, under the guidance of a group leader (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 155) • Group leader facilitates discussion of a prepared list of topics using broad open questions, visual displays • Assistant records what is said and by whom (audio, video, notes) Business Research

Focus groupsAdvantages and disadvantages • Advantage of focus groups is that they combine interviewing and observation and can be used to • Develop knowledge of a new phenomenon • Generate propositions from the issues that emerge • Develop questions for a survey • Obtain feedback on the findings of research in which the focus group members participated • Potential problems • Selecting a range of participants, choosing a venue, ensuring issues are covered in sufficient depth, recording • Cost/time Business Research

Grounded theory • Grounded theory is ‘a methodology in which a systematic set of procedures is used to develop an inductively derived theory about phenomena’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 157) • Used where there is no theory to explain the phenomena • ‘Joint collection, coding and analysis of data is the underlying operation. The generation of theory, coupled with the notion of theory as process, requires that all three operations be done together as much as possible’ (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, p. 43) Business Research

Grounded theoryAdvantages and disadvantages • Advantages • Any data collection method associated with an interpretive paradigm can be used in a grounded theory methodology • Potential problems • It is hard to rid yourself of the boundaries imposed by prior theory but you need to have an open mind (imagine you are observing the Olympic Games from another planet and trying to make sense of what you see) • Limited generalization as the resulting substantive models relate only to the particular context and research setting Business Research

Conclusions • You can collect primary or secondary research data • Do not collect any data until you have decided on your method of analysis • Your methods must have a good fit with your paradigm and methodology, be feasible and allow you to investigate your research questions • You will justify your choice in your methodology chapter • It is not possible to give a full description of the main methods introduced in this lecture • Now read Chapter 8 Business Research

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