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Virtual Memory

Virtual Memory. Topics Motivations for VM Address translation Accelerating translation with TLBs. Motivations for Virtual Memory. Use Physical DRAM as a Cache for the Disk Address space of a process can exceed physical memory size

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Virtual Memory

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  1. Virtual Memory • Topics • Motivations for VM • Address translation • Accelerating translation with TLBs

  2. Motivations for Virtual Memory • Use Physical DRAM as a Cache for the Disk • Address space of a process can exceed physical memory size • Sum of address spaces of multiple processes can exceed physical memory • Simplify Memory Management • Multiple processes resident in main memory. • Each process with its own address space • Only “active” code and data is actually in memory • Allocate more memory to process as needed. • Provide Protection • One process can’t interfere with another. • because they operate in different address spaces. • User process cannot access privileged information • different sections of address spaces have different permissions.

  3. 80 GB: ~$110 1GB: ~$200 4 MB: ~$500 SRAM DRAM Disk DRAM a “Cache” for Disk • Full address space is quite large: • 32-bit addresses: ~4,000,000,000 (4 billion) bytes • 64-bit addresses: ~16,000,000,000,000,000,000 (16 quintillion) bytes • Disk storage is ~300X cheaper than DRAM storage • 80 GB of DRAM: ~ $33,000 • 80 GB of disk: ~ $110 • To access large amounts of data in a cost-effective manner, the bulk of the data must be stored on disk

  4. CPU C a c h e regs Levels in Memory Hierarchy cache virtual memory Memory disk 8 B 32 B 4 KB Register Cache Memory Disk Memory size: speed: $/Mbyte: line size: 32 B 1 ns 8 B 32 KB-4MB 2 ns $125/MB 32 B 1024 MB 30 ns $0.20/MB 4 KB 100 GB 8 ms $0.001/MB larger, slower, cheaper

  5. DRAM vs. SRAM as a “Cache” • DRAM vs. disk is more extreme than SRAM vs. DRAM • Access latencies: • DRAM ~10X slower than SRAM • Disk ~100,000X slower than DRAM • Importance of exploiting spatial locality: • First byte is ~100,000X slower than successive bytes on disk • vs. ~4X improvement for page-mode vs. regular accesses to DRAM • Bottom line: • Design decisions made for DRAM caches driven by enormous cost of misses DRAM Disk SRAM

  6. Impact of Properties on Design • If DRAM was to be organized similar to an SRAM cache, how would we set the following design parameters? • Line size? • Large, since disk better at transferring large blocks • Associativity? • High, to mimimize miss rate • Write through or write back? • Write back, since can’t afford to perform small writes to disk • What would the impact of these choices be on: • miss rate • Extremely low. << 1% • hit time • Must match cache/DRAM performance • miss latency • Very high. ~20ms • tag storage overhead • Low, relative to block size

  7. “Cache” Tag Data 0: Object Name D J X 243 17 105 = X? 1: X • • • • • • N-1: Locating an Object in a “Cache” • SRAM Cache • Tag stored with cache line • Maps from cache block to memory blocks • From cached to uncached form • Save a few bits by only storing tag • No tag for block not in cache • Hardware retrieves information • can quickly match against multiple tags

  8. Object Name X Data 0: 243 D: 1: 17 J: • • • N-1: 105 X: Locating an Object in “Cache” • DRAM Cache • Each allocated page of virtual memory has entry in page table • Mapping from virtual pages to physical pages • From uncached form to cached form • Page table entry even if page not in memory • Specifies disk address • Only way to indicate where to find page • OS retrieves information Page Table “Cache” Location 0 On Disk • • • 1

  9. Memory 0: Physical Addresses 1: CPU N-1: A System with Physical Memory Only • Examples: • most Cray machines, early PCs, nearly all embedded systems, etc. • Addresses generated by the CPU correspond directly to bytes in physical memory

  10. 0: 1: CPU N-1: A System with Virtual Memory • Examples: • workstations, servers, modern PCs, etc. Memory Page Table Virtual Addresses Physical Addresses 0: 1: P-1: Disk • Address Translation: Hardware converts virtual addresses to physical addresses via OS-managed lookup table (page table)

  11. Page Faults (like “Cache Misses”) • What if an object is on disk rather than in memory? • Page table entry indicates virtual address not in memory • OS exception handler invoked to move data from disk into memory • current process suspends, others can resume • OS has full control over placement, etc. Before fault After fault Memory Memory Page Table Page Table Virtual Addresses Physical Addresses Virtual Addresses Physical Addresses CPU CPU Disk Disk

  12. disk Disk Servicing a Page Fault (1) Initiate Block Read Processor • Processor Signals Controller • Read block of length P starting at disk address X and store starting at memory address Y • Read Occurs • Direct Memory Access (DMA) • Under control of I/O controller • I / O Controller Signals Completion • Interrupt processor • OS resumes suspended process Reg (3) Read Done Cache Memory-I/O bus (2) DMA Transfer I/O controller Memory disk Disk

  13. Memory Management • Multiple processes can reside in physical memory. • How do we resolve address conflicts? • what if two processes access something at the same address? memory invisible to user code kernel virtual memory stack %esp Memory mapped region forshared libraries Linux/x86 process memory image the “brk” ptr runtime heap (via malloc) uninitialized data (.bss) initialized data (.data) program text (.text) forbidden 0

  14. Separate Virt. Addr. Spaces • Virtual and physical address spaces divided into equal-sized blocks • blocks are called “pages” (both virtual and physical) • Each process has its own virtual address space • operating system controls how virtual pages as assigned to physical memory 0 Physical Address Space (DRAM) Address Translation Virtual Address Space for Process 1: 0 VP 1 PP 2 VP 2 ... N-1 (e.g., read/only library code) PP 7 Virtual Address Space for Process 2: 0 VP 1 PP 10 VP 2 ... M-1 N-1

  15. Contrast: Macintosh Memory Model • MAC OS 1–9 • Does not use traditional virtual memory • All program objects accessed through “handles” • Indirect reference through pointer table • Objects stored in shared global address space Shared Address Space P1 Pointer Table A Process P1 B “Handles” P2 Pointer Table C Process P2 D E

  16. Macintosh Memory Management • Allocation / Deallocation • Similar to free-list management of malloc/free • Compaction • Can move any object and just update the (unique) pointer in pointer table Shared Address Space P1 Pointer Table B Process P1 A “Handles” P2 Pointer Table C Process P2 D E

  17. Mac vs. VM-Based Memory • Allocating, deallocating, and moving memory: • can be accomplished by both techniques • Block sizes: • Mac: variable-sized • may be very small or very large • VM: fixed-size • size is equal to one page (4KB on x86 Linux systems) • Allocating contiguous chunks of memory: • Mac: contiguous allocation is required • VM: can map contiguous range of virtual addresses to disjoint ranges of physical addresses • Protection • Mac: “wild write” by one process can corrupt another’s data

  18. MAC OS X • “Modern” Operating System • Virtual memory with protection • Preemptive multitasking • Other versions of MAC OS require processes to voluntarily relinquish control • Based on MACH OS • Developed at CMU in late 1980’s

  19. 0: Read? Write? Physical Addr 1: VP 0: VP 0: Yes No PP 9 VP 1: VP 1: Yes Yes PP 4 VP 2: VP 2: No No XXXXXXX • • • • • • • • • Read? Write? Physical Addr Yes Yes PP 6 N-1: Yes No PP 9 No No XXXXXXX • • • • • • • • • Motivation #3: Protection • Page table entry contains access rights information • hardware enforces this protection (trap into OS if violation occurs) Page Tables Memory Process i: Process j:

  20. VM Address Translation • Virtual Address Space • V = {0, 1, …, N–1} • Physical Address Space • P = {0, 1, …, M–1} • M < N • Address Translation • MAP: V  P U {} • For virtual address a: • MAP(a) = a’ if data at virtual address a at physical address a’ in P • MAP(a) =  if data at virtual address a not in physical memory • Either invalid or stored on disk

  21. VM Address Translation: Hit Processor Hardware Addr Trans Mechanism Main Memory a a' virtual address part of the on-chip memory mgmt unit (MMU) physical address

  22. VM Address Translation: Miss page fault fault handler Processor  Hardware Addr Trans Mechanism Secondary memory Main Memory a a' OS performs this transfer (only if miss) virtual address part of the on-chip memory mgmt unit (MMU) physical address

  23. VM Address Translation • Parameters • P = 2p = page size (bytes). • N = 2n = Virtual address limit • M = 2m = Physical address limit n–1 p p–1 0 virtual address virtual page number page offset address translation m–1 p p–1 0 physical address physical page number page offset Page offset bits don’t change as a result of translation

  24. Page Tables Virtual Page Number Memory resident page table (physical page or disk address) Physical Memory Valid 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 Disk Storage (swap file or regular file system file) 0 1

  25. virtual address page table base register n–1 p p–1 0 VPN acts as table index virtual page number (VPN) page offset physical page number (PPN) access valid if valid=0 then page not in memory m–1 p p–1 0 physical page number (PPN) page offset physical address Address Translation via Page Table

  26. Page Table Operation • Translation • Separate (set of) page table(s) per process • VPN forms index into page table (points to a page table entry)

  27. Page Table Operation • Computing Physical Address • Page Table Entry (PTE) provides information about page • if (valid bit = 1) then the page is in memory. • Use physical page number (PPN) to construct address • if (valid bit = 0) then the page is on disk • Page fault

  28. Page Table Operation • Checking Protection • Access rights field indicate allowable access • e.g., read-only, read-write, execute-only • typically support multiple protection modes (e.g., kernel vs. user) • Protection violation fault if user doesn’t have necessary permission

  29. miss VA PA Trans- lation Cache Main Memory CPU hit data Integrating VM and Cache • Most Caches “Physically Addressed” • Accessed by physical addresses • Allows multiple processes to have blocks in cache at same time • Allows multiple processes to share pages • Cache doesn’t need to be concerned with protection issues • Access rights checked as part of address translation • Perform Address Translation Before Cache Lookup • But this could involve a memory access itself (of the PTE) • Of course, page table entries can also become cached

  30. hit miss VA PA TLB Lookup Cache Main Memory CPU miss hit Trans- lation data Speeding up Translation with a TLB • “Translation Lookaside Buffer” (TLB) • Small hardware cache in MMU • Maps virtual page numbers to physical page numbers • Contains complete page table entries for small number of pages

  31. Address Translation with a TLB n–1 p p–1 0 virtual address virtual page number page offset valid tag physical page number TLB . . . = TLB hit physical address tag byte offset index valid tag data Cache = data cache hit

  32. 10 2 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 5 4 3 1 6 11 0 0 2 3 4 1 6 7 8 9 5 VPO PPN VPN PPO Simple Memory System Example • Addressing • 14-bit virtual addresses • 12-bit physical address • Page size = 64 bytes (Virtual Page Offset) (Virtual Page Number) (Physical Page Number) (Physical Page Offset)

  33. Simple Memory System Page Table • Only show first 16 entries

  34. TLBI TLBT 7 13 12 11 10 9 8 5 4 3 2 1 0 6 VPO VPN Simple Memory System TLB • TLB • 16 entries • 4-way associative

  35. CO CI CT 6 11 10 9 8 7 5 3 2 1 0 4 PPO PPN Simple Memory System Cache • Cache • 16 lines • 4-byte line size • Direct mapped

  36. TLBT TLBI 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 CO CI CT VPN VPO 6 11 10 9 8 7 5 3 2 1 0 4 PPO PPN Address Translation Example #1 • Virtual Address 0x03D4 VPN ___ TLBI ___ TLBT ____ TLB Hit? __ Page Fault? __ PPN: ____ • Physical Address Offset ___ CI___ CT ____ Hit? __ Byte: ____

  37. TLBT TLBI 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 CO CI CT VPN VPO 6 11 10 9 8 7 5 3 2 1 0 4 PPO PPN Address Translation Example #2 • Virtual Address 0x0B8F VPN ___ TLBI ___ TLBT ____ TLB Hit? __ Page Fault? __ PPN: ____ • Physical Address Offset ___ CI___ CT ____ Hit? __ Byte: ____

  38. TLBT TLBI 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 CO CI CT VPN VPO 6 11 10 9 8 7 5 3 2 1 0 4 PPO PPN Address Translation Example #3 • Virtual Address 0x0040 VPN ___ TLBI ___ TLBT ____ TLB Hit? __ Page Fault? __ PPN: ____ • Physical Address Offset ___ CI___ CT ____ Hit? __ Byte: ____

  39. Multi-Level Page Tables Level 2 Tables • Given: • 4KB (212) page size • 32-bit address space • 4-byte PTE • Problem: • Would need a 4 MB page table! • 220 *4 bytes • Common solution • multi-level page tables • e.g., 2-level table (P6) • Level 1 table: 1024 entries, each of which points to a Level 2 page table. • Level 2 table: 1024 entries, each of which points to a page Level 1 Table ...

  40. Main Themes • Programmer’s View • Large “flat” address space • Can allocate large blocks of contiguous addresses • Processor “owns” machine • Has private address space • Unaffected by behavior of other processes • System View • User virtual address space created by mapping to set of pages • Need not be contiguous • Allocated dynamically • Enforce protection during address translation • OS manages many processes simultaneously • Continually switching among processes • Especially when one must wait for resource • E.g., disk I/O to handle page fault

  41. Intel P6 • Internal Designation for Successor to Pentium • Which had internal designation P5 • Fundamentally Different from Pentium • Out-of-order, superscalar operation • Designed to handle server applications • Requires high performance memory system • Resulting Processors • PentiumPro (1996) • Pentium II (1997) • Incorporated MMX instructions • special instructions for parallel processing • L2 cache on same chip • Pentium III (1999) • Incorporated Streaming SIMD Extensions • More instructions for parallel processing

  42. 32 bit address space 4 KB page size L1, L2, and TLBs • 4-way set associative inst TLB • 32 entries • 8 sets data TLB • 64 entries • 16 sets L1 i-cache and d-cache • 16 KB • 32 B line size • 128 sets L2 cache • unified • 128 KB -- 2 MB P6 Memory System DRAM external system bus (e.g. PCI) L2 cache cache bus bus interface unit inst TLB data TLB instruction fetch unit L1 i-cache L1 d-cache processor package

  43. Linux Organizes VM as Collection of “Areas” process virtual memory vm_area_struct • pgd: • page directory address • vm_prot: • read/write permissions for this area • vm_flags • shared with other processes or private to this process task_struct mm_struct vm_end vm_start mm pgd vm_prot vm_flags mmap shared libraries vm_next 0x40000000 vm_end vm_start data vm_prot vm_flags 0x0804a020 text vm_next vm_end vm_start 0x08048000 vm_prot vm_flags 0 vm_next

  44. vm_end vm_end vm_end vm_start vm_start vm_start r/o r/w r/o vm_next vm_next vm_next Linux Page Fault Handling process virtual memory • Is the VA legal? • i.e. is it in an area defined by a vm_area_struct? • if not then signal segmentation violation (e.g. (1)) • Is the operation legal? • i.e., can the process read/write this area? • if not then signal protection violation (e.g., (2)) • If OK, handle fault • e.g., (3) vm_area_struct shared libraries 1 read 3 data read 2 text write 0

  45. Memory Mapping • Creation of new VM area done via “memory mapping” • create new vm_area_struct and page tables for area • area can be backed by (i.e., get its initial values from) : • regular file on disk (e.g., an executable object file) • initial page bytes come from a section of a file • nothing (e.g., bss) • initial page bytes are zeros • dirty pages are swapped back and forth between a special swap file. • Key point: no virtual pages are copied into physical memory until they are referenced! • known as “demand paging” • crucial for time and space efficiency

  46. User-Level Memory Mapping • void *mmap(void *start, int len, • int prot, int flags, int fd, int offset) • map len bytes starting at offset offset of the file specified by file description fd, preferably at address start (usually 0 for don’t care). • prot: MAP_READ, MAP_WRITE • flags: MAP_PRIVATE, MAP_SHARED • return a pointer to the mapped area. • Example: fast file copy • useful for applications like Web servers that need to quickly copy files. • mmap allows file transfers without copying into user space.

  47. mmap() Example: Fast File Copy • int main() { • struct stat stat; • int i, fd, size; • char *bufp; • /* open the file & get its size*/ • fd = open("./mmap.c", O_RDONLY); • fstat(fd, &stat); • size = stat.st_size; • /* map the file to a new VM area */ • bufp = mmap(0, size, PROT_READ, • MAP_PRIVATE, fd, 0); • /* write the VM area to stdout */ • write(1, bufp, size); • } • #include <unistd.h> • #include <sys/mman.h> • #include <sys/types.h> • #include <sys/stat.h> • #include <fcntl.h> • /* • * mmap.c - a program that uses mmap • * to copy itself to stdout • */

  48. Exec() Revisited process-specific data structures (page tables, task and mm structs) • To run a new program p in the current process using exec(): • free vm_area_struct’s and page tables for old areas. • create new vm_area_struct’s and page tables for new areas. • stack, bss, data, text, shared libs. • text and data backed by ELF executable object file. • bss and stack initialized to zero. • set PC to entry point in .text • Linux will swap in code and data pages as needed. physical memory same for each process kernel code/data/stack kernel VM 0xc0 demand-zero stack %esp process VM Memory mapped region for shared libraries .data .text libc.so brk runtime heap (via malloc) demand-zero uninitialized data (.bss) initialized data (.data) .data program text (.text) .text p forbidden 0

  49. Fork() Revisited • To create a new process using fork(): • make copies of the old process’s mm_struct, vm_area_struct’s, and page tables. • at this point the two processes are sharing all of their pages. • How to get separate spaces without copying all the virtual pages from one space to another? • “copy on write” technique. • copy-on-write • make pages of writeable areas read-only • flag vm_area_struct’s for these areas as private “copy-on-write”. • writes by either process to these pages will cause page faults. • fault handler recognizes copy-on-write, makes a copy of the page, and restores write permissions. • Net result: • copies are deferred until absolutely necessary (i.e., when one of the processes tries to modify a shared page).

  50. Memory System Summary • Virtual Memory • Supports many OS-related functions • Process creation • Initial • Forking children • Task switching • Protection • Combination of hardware & software implementation • Software management of tables, allocations • Hardware access of tables • Hardware caching of table entries (TLB)

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