Chapter 14: Qualitative Data Collection

1. Chapter 14: Qualitative Data Collection • Objectives • Distinguish between participant and nonparticipant observational techniques and describe how they can be used in a qualitative study. • Identify four specific interview techniques and describe how they can be used in a qualitative study.

2. Chapter 14: Qualitative Data Collection • Objectives • Describe how questionnaires and records can be used to provide data for qualitative studies. • Describe strategies to address the trustworthiness (i.e., validity) and replicability (i.e., reliability) of qualitative research.

3. Qualitative Data Collection • Qualitative data collection is referred to as fieldwork. • Fieldwork includes materials gathered, recorded, and compiled during the study. • Fieldwork requires the researcher to immerse himself in the setting over time. • The researcher collects as much data she can as unobtrusively as possible. • Qualitative data is narrative and visual.

4. Observation • The researcher obtains data by watching participants. • Observational data is often less subject to participant bias. • The researcher attempts not to change the setting.

5. Observation Forms of observation • Participant observation • The researcher becomes part of and a participant in the situation being observed. • The researcher participates while observing and collecting data.

6. Observation Forms of observation • Nonparticipant observation • The researcher is not directly part of the situation being observed. • The researcher observes and records but does not interact with the participants. • Nonparticipant observation is a less intrusive form of observation.

7. Recording Observations • Field notes include descriptive information about what the observer has directly seen and heard on site. • Field notes also include reflective information that captures an observer’s personal reactions and thoughts related to the observations. • The researcher avoids evaluative terms in field notes but instead describes behaviors.

8. Recording Observations • Observational protocols are often used. • Protocols provide the researcher with a focus during the observation. • Protocols also provide a framework for the field notes.

9. Recording Observations • Example protocol questions include: • Who is being observed? How many people are involved, who are they, and what individual roles and mannerisms are evident? • What is going on? What is the nature of the conversation? What are people saying or doing? • What is the physical setting like? How are people seated, and where? How do the participants interact with each other?

10. Recording Observations • What is the status or roles of people; who leads, who follows, who is decisive, who is not? What is the tone of the session? What beliefs, attitudes, values seem to emerge? • How did the meeting end? Was the group divided, united, upset, bored, or relieved? • What activities or interactions seemed unusual or significant? • What was the observer doing during the session? What was the observer’s level of participation in the observation?

11. Recording Observations • Start slowly. Do not assume that you know what you are looking for until you have experience in the setting and have spent time with the participants. • Try to enter the field with no preconceptions. Recognize and dismiss your assumptions and remain open. • Write your field notes as soon as possible. Don’t discuss the observation until you have written field notes.

12. Recording Observations • Include the date, site, and time on notes. Use large margins and write impressions in the margins. Draw diagrams. • List key words related to the observation and outline what you saw and heard. Use the keywords and the outline to write your notes. • Keep the descriptive and reflective parts of your field notes distinct.

13. Recording Observations • Write down your hunches, questions, and insights after each observation. • Number the lines or paragraphs of your field notes to help you find sections when needed. • Enter your field notes into a computer program for later examination and analysis.

14. Interviews • Interviews are purposeful interactions in which one person obtains information from another person. • Interviews allow for data not available through observation alone. • Interviews may be formal and planned or informal and unplanned.

15. Interviews • Interviews may be unstructured or structured. • Unstructured • Unstructured interviews are similar to conversations. • Unstructured interviews are commonly used to gain more personal information.

16. Interviews • Structured interviews include predetermined questions. • Phrasing structured interviews can be challenging. • Include both open-ended and closed questions. • Pilot test the questions.

17. Guidelines for Interviewing • Listening is the most important part of interviewing. • Don’t interrupt. Wait. • Tolerate silence. The participant may be thinking. • Avoid leading questions. • Keep participants focused and ask for details.

18. Guidelines for Interviewing • Follow-up on what participants say and ask questions when you don’t understand. • Don’t be judgmental about participants’ views or beliefs. • Don’t debate with participants.

19. Collecting Data From Interviews • Researchers can collect data through taking notes during the interview, writing notes after the interview, and audio- or videotaping the interview. • Record when it is possible. • Writing notes during an interview is distracting. • Writing notes after an interview is difficult because the interviewer may not remember critical information. • Transcribing tapes takes a very long time. • Labeled transcripts and tapes should be stored.

20. Collecting Data From Interviews • Focus groups include several individuals who can contribute to the understanding of the research problem. • Everyone should have opportunities to respond during a focus group interview. • Transcribing focus group interviews may take longer to than transcribing individual interviews.

21. Collecting Data From Interviews • E-mail interviews are similar to an ongoing conversation. • Ethical considerations of confidentiality and anonymity are important to address in e-mail interviews.

22. Questionnaires • Interviews are time consuming. • Some researchers use questionnaires and then follow-up questionnaires with interviews. • Questionnaires allow for larger amounts of data collection. • The nature of the data collected with questionnaires is different than data from observations.

23. Questionnaire Guidelines • Make questionnaire attractive. • Carefully proofread questionnaires. • Avoid lengthy questionnaires. • Do not ask unnecessary questions. • Use structured items with a variety of responses.

24. Questionnaire Guidelines • Include a section that allows respondents to include ‘other comments’. • This section may provide information for follow-up interviews. • Determine if respondents’ identities are necessary and if so, develop a mechanism to track respondents.

25. Examining Records • Qualitative researchers use a variety of available documents. • Archival documents • Journals • Maps • Videotape and audiotape • Artifacts

26. Validity and Reliability • Validity in qualitative research addresses whether the data accurately measures what it was intended to measure. • Trustworthiness and understanding are terms used to describe validity in qualitative research.

27. Validity and Reliability • Trustworthiness can be established by: • Credibility: The report addresses problems that are not easily explained. • Transferability: The description provided is such that others can identify with the setting. • Dependability: The stability of the data is addressed. • Confirmability: The neutrality and objectivity of the data are apparent.

28. Validity and Reliability • Criteria for qualitative research validity. • Descriptive validity: factual accuracy of the account • Interpretive validity: researcher accurately interprets participants’ behaviors and actions • Theoretical validity: how well the report relates to broader theory

29. Validity and Reliability • Evaluative validity: whether the report was created without researcher’s judgment • Generalizability (Internal and External): the degree to which research is generalizable within and outside the setting

30. Validity and Reliability • Strategies for ensuring the validity of qualitative research • Prolong participation at the study site • Persistently observe • Use peer debriefing • Collect additional artifacts • Conduct member checks • Establish structural corroboration or coherence • Establish referential adequacy

31. Validity and Reliability • Collect detailed descriptive data • Develop detailed descriptions of the context • Establish an audit trail • Practice triangulation • Practice reflexivity

32. Validity and Reliability • Practical options to assure trustworthiness • Talk little; listen a lot • Record observations accurately • Begin writing early • Let readers ‘see’ for themselves • Report fully • Be candid • Seek feedback • Write accurately Adopted from Wolcott (1994)

33. Validity and Reliability • Reliability • Qualitative researchers address reliability by examining the techniques they are using to collect data. • Generalizability is less a concern for qualitative researchers than it is for quantitative researchers. Qualitative researchers are more concerned with relevance.