Professor Peter Kalmus

1. Particles and the Universe Professor Peter Kalmus Physics Department

2. 170,000 light years 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Supernova 1987A Neutrino numbers Emitted ~ 1058 Hit Earth ~ 1029 Hit tank ~ 1017 Interact ~ 10 Energy release ~ 1046 J SN 1987A Earth SN ~ 1046 J

3. 8 arc min Large Magellanic Cloud Sanduleak - 69o 202

6. LHC History of the Universe T/K Energy Tevatron LEP 16 10 1 TeV Particle Era Era of 10 1 GeV 13 Astronomy Nuclear Primordial Era Soup 10 1 MeV 10 Atomic Era 10 1 keV 7 10 1 eV 4 Hot as Hell 445oC = Boiling point of Brimstone Sun forms 10 1 meV Time m ps ns s ms s 1 day 1 year Today Time since Big Bang / s 10-12 10-6 100 1013 1018

7. Dark matter Dark energy Primordial Soup CERN style 100 GeV / particle Ingredients 56% quarks 16% gluons 9% charged leptons 9% W & Z particles 5% neutrinos 2% photons 2% gravitons 1% Higgs bosons Recipe by Rocky Kolb Hot 3 x 1015K Condensed Missing ingredients

8. Rotation in spiral galaxies Stars move too fast (measured by Doppler shift) 96 % of universe is undetected ~4% Baryonic; ~24% “Dark Matter” ~72% “Dark Energy” Inverse square law Sun v Mo a Kepler, Newton T2 = 4 p2 a3 /G Mo v2 = G Mo/a (circular orbit)

9. velocity Distance from centre Galaxy rotation curve Measured velocities from Doppler shifts Expect from detected stars etc. Hence there is more gravitationally attractive material than has been detected  Dark matter

10. Slowest v 2 v 3 v Fastest 4 v Explosion in empty space (forget about gravity) Dark energy After some time the fastest particles will be furthest away

11. Plot distance against • recession velocity for many galaxies • Get straight line • Big Bang The Universe is like this ! Distance (Magnitude) furthest galaxy highest recession velocity Hubble Diagram nearest galaxy Recession velocity (Doppler Redshift z)

12. But cannot ignore gravity which slows down the flow Hubble Diagram Distance (Magnitude) Expect this line to curve downwards for very distant galaxies. Expansion would decelerate Recession velocity (Doppler Redshift z)

13. Hubble Diagram (simplified) Recent results show that expansion is accelerating ! Distance (Magnitude) Cosmic repulsion ! “Dark energy” Recession velocity (Doppler Redshift z)

14. Structure of the Atom Proton + Neutron strong force Early 20th Century electron, nucleus 1930s electric force electromagnetism Nucleus Atom bunch of grapes ~ 10-10m ~ 10-15m town

15. Neutrinos Feel weak force “predicted”  later discovered 100,000,000,000,000 per second pass through each person from the Sun Equal and opposite properties “predicted”  later discovered Annihilate with normal particles Now used in PET scans Antiparticles Many new particles created in high energy collisions 1950s, 1960s Convert energy to mass. Einstein E = mc2 > 200 new “elementary” (?) particles

16. Leptons (do not feel strong force) electron e- -1 e-neutrino ne 0 Quarks (feel strong force) up u +2/3 down d -1/3 Today’s building blocks proton = u u d +2/3 +2/3 -1/3 = +1 neutron = u d d +2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0 4 particles very simple multiply by 3 (generations) multiply by 2 (antiparticles) First generation

17. Today’s building blocks Also antileptons antiquarks Leptons (do not feel strong force) electron e- -1 e-neutrino ne 0 Quarks (feel strong force) up u +2/3 down d -1/3 6 leptons 6 antileptons 6 quarks 6 antiquarks baryons q q q antibary. q q q mesons qq muon m- -1 m-neutrino nm 0 charm c +2/3 strange s -1/3 tau t- -1 t-neutrino nt 0 top t +2/3 bottom b -1/3 Recent news: pentaquarks

18. Antimatter Annihilation of Antigalaxy ? Telescopes X Cosmic rays ? AMS (Space station) Alfven hypothesis Earth, Moon, X Solar system X Antistars in our Galaxy ? Other (anti-) galaxies ? Anti-hydrogen : made in lab Bulk antimatter ? Where ? Difficult to detect Signal ? e+ + e - g + g 0.511 MeV g-ray “line” g g g Radiation pressure

19. Insect 1 lens 2 lenses 3 lenses : Magnifying glass : Microscope : No improvement Resolution limited by wavelength of light = l Visible light wavelength l ~ 5 x 10-7 m This is 5,000 times size of atom 500 million times size of nucleus To “probe” elementary particles need wavelengths l lower by factor more than a billion ! Constituents How can we find internal structure?

20. Planck constant h p l = wavelength momentum Quantum physics to the rescue Particles have wave properties “See” small objects  small wavelength  high momentum  high energy  large accelerator Non-relativistic p = m v mass x velocity Relativistic p = gm v g = 1/ (1 - v2/c2)1/2 To observe the smallest objects we need the largest machines !

21. Accelerator ~ Extract beam RF cavities electric kick Bending electro- magnet Focusing electro- magnet Vacuum ring Injector

23. Forces Electro- magnetic atoms molecules optics electronics telecom. Weak beta decay solar fusion Strong nuclei particles Gravity falling objects planet orbits stars galaxies short range gluon inverse square law photon short range W±, Z0 inverse square law graviton

24. Forces by exchange Analogy only Useful mental picture ?

25. Attraction

26. of the fundamental forces of nature Unification Faraday, Maxwell Newton Electricity Magnetism Apples Planets Electro- magnetic Gravity

27. of the fundamental forces of nature Unification Faraday, Maxwell Newton Electricity Magnetism Apples Planets Electro- magnetic Gravity Weak Strong Salam, Weinberg, Glashow Electroweak unified force g, W +, W -, Z 0 0 80 80 90 GeV Do the W and Z particles really exist ?

28. Collider Inject anti- protons ~ RF cavities electric kick Bending electro- magnet Carlo Rubbia Antiprotons Collide 2 beams Inside vacuum Focusing electro- magnet Simon van der Meer Stochastic cooling Inject protons

31. Carriers of Weak Force Found at CERN The W boson the hypo The Discovery of the W Boson The observation of the W intermediate vector boson, the particle that carries the weak nuclear force, is the most outstanding achievement of the CERN laboratory in Geneva and one of the most important advances in physics of this century. It is the successful conclusion of carries the weak force which controls the production of energy in the Sun and some The Role of UK Scientists Twenty-five British scientists played an important part in the remarkable discovery of the W boson. They were led by Professor J D Dowell of Birmingham University, Professor P I P Kalmus of Queen Mary College and Dr A Astbury of Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. The W boson

32. It is very encouraging that so many British scientists were in the team that discovered the “W boson”, and I would like to congratulate you and your colleagues from Queen Mary College on your success. I am sure that British physicists will be among the first to unify all the four basic forces From THE PRIME MINISTER 10 Downing Street To Professor P. I. P. Kalmus

33. Peter Kalmus Alan Honma Eric Eisenhandler Richard Keeler Reg Gibson Giordi Salvi Graham Thompson Themis Bowcock W and Z particles discovered UA1 Collaboration at CERN Included following members of Queen Mary Results confirmed by another CERN collaboration, and few years later at Fermilab USA Electroweak unification confirmed Nature’s fundamental forces reduced from 4 to 3 Nobel Prizes

34. THE END p.i.p.kalmus@qmul.ac.uk http://www.ph.qmul.ac.uk