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2. Lesson 3: The U.S. Navy in the Napoleonic Era 1783-1815

3. Learning Objectives • Comprehend the influence of European events upon American trade and naval policy during this period. • Understand and be able to explain the term “Battle of Annihilation.” • Know the causes and operations of the Quasi-War with France. • Know the background of Jefferson’s defensive naval strategy including the use of gunboats and forts.

4. Learning Objectives • Know and be able to recall operations against the Barbary corsairs during this period. • Comprehend the main factors of the European war and their effect on causing the War of 1812. • Understand and be able to explain the term “Guerre de Course.” • Know the U.S. and British Naval Strategy during the war.

5. Learning Objectives • Comprehend the Great Lakes campaign and its importance to the U.S. war effort. • Comprehend (compare and contrast) the naval strategies of Rodgers and Decatur. • Comprehend the significance of the Washington and New Orleans campaigns. • Know the contributions of the U.S. Navy during the war of 1812, and assess the state of the Navy after the treaty of Ghent .

6. A New Nation • Articles of Confederation • Weak central government • No power of taxation • Congress unable to fund a Navy after Rev War. • 1785 - All Continental Navy warships decommissioned • New maritime trade markets • Large American merchant fleet • China and Mediterranean Sea • American merchant ships were no longer protected by the Royal Navy.

7. A word on Neutrality… • US wanted to trade with anyone, anywhere • “Free ships make free goods” • Belligerents didn’t want US taking their trade during war

8. A New Nation • Barbary States -- North Africa • Demands for tribute to guarantee safe passage in Mediterranean. • War of the French Revolution -- U.S. neutral rights violated. • Great Britain - Orders in Council • French Privateers seize American merchants

9. Naval Policy Debate Begins • U.S. Constitution - 1788. • Stronger federal government with ability to tax. • “The Congress shall have Power To provide and maintain a Navy.” • “The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States.” • Federalists: New England -- Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, John Adams • Proponents of a strong Navy. • Ensure neutral rights on the seas and protect vital trade interests. • Republicans: Middle and Southern States -- Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry • Strong U.S. Navy would provoke European powers. • Navies are expensive and imperialistic - a “luxury”.

10. Beginnings of the U.S. Navy • Navy Act of 1794 • Navy is part of the Department of War. • Secretary of War Henry Knox. • Large 44-gun frigates planned. • More heavily armed than normal frigates. • Faster than Ships of the Line. • 1797: United States, 44 and Constitution, 44 completed -- called Humphrey’s frigates. • Marines deployed on Navy ships. • Continue tradition of British Royal Marines. • Protect Captain and officers from the crew. • Provide musket fire from quarterdeck and “fighting tops”.

11. Too Little Too Late • Pinckney Treaty • 1794 Breakdown Portuguese-Algerian Relations • 1796 Treaty with Algiers • Treaties with Morocco, Tripoli, and Tunis • The Med is reopened to American trading without a Naval response!

12. Diplomacy and Naval Policy

13. Napoleonic Wars Naval Confrontation • Fleet engagements between Royal Navy and French Navy and French allies’ navies: • Battle of the “Glorious” First of June -- 1794 • Battle of Cape St. Vincent -- February 1797 • Battle of Camperdown -- October 1797 • Battle of the Nile -- 1 August 1798 • Battle of Copenhagen -- 2 April 1801 • Battle of Trafalgar -- 21 October 1805 • Admiral Horatio Nelson • Highly successful through the use of melee tactics. • “Concept of Operations” to ship captains prior to battle.

14. Jay’s Treaty -- 1794 • Spring 1794: Congress finds out about British Orders in Council against US shipping • 30-day embargo on all American exports to Britain • Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton engineer John Jay’s appointment as emissary to London • Hamilton’s Instructions: • Do not contravene Franco-American alliance of 1778 • British West Indies opened to American trade

15. The Results • Britain promises to relinquish northwest forts • Opened British East Indies to American trade • MFN status to Americans trading in the British home Isles

16. But . . . • No headway on neutral rights • Seizure of goods bound for France • Abandons “Free ships make free goods” • Restrictions on shipping in British West Indies • President Washington delays proclamation of the treaty until 2 February 1796

17. France now the Villain • Franco-American Alliance • 1796 French seizure of commerce in West Indies • Eject American minister Charles C. Pinckney • John Adams calls special session of Congress • Non-partisan council to go to France • Money for Navy • A provisional Army • Congress answers 1 July 1797 • United States, Constitution, and Constellation back in the game

18. The XYZ Affair • Talleyrand wants bribe • XYZ Affair • American delegation to Paris insulted - Congress and American public outraged. • “Millions for Defense, not one cent for tribute”

19. Department of Navy • Department of the Navy established -- 1798. • Benjamin Stoddert - First Secretary of the Navy. • Increase in naval expenditures for: • Shipyards • Ships - completed frigates begun by Navy Act of 1794. • Stoddert’s Navy • 50 ships by end of 1799 • Wanted fleet navy (ships of the line) • Not guerre de course

20. The Quasi-War with France

21. Napoleonic Wars • French Revolution - 1789 • French aristocracy overthrown. • War with Great Britain resumes in 1793. • French Navy leadership adversely affected. • French Army leadership relatively unaffected - artillery officers. • Change in strategy and tactics from more formal and professional armies. • War between France and continental European powers. • Britain forms a series of five “Coalitions” with continental powers to counter the French - continues Pitt’s Plan. • Early failures by British and allies while French counter-revolution threatened republicans. • French Empire established under Emperor Napoleon.

22. Operations of the Quasi-War p.30 • Main theater of war: West Indies. • Stoddert orders all Naval ships to West Indies 1798-99 • U.S. Navy uses British ports. • Most of the French fleet blockaded in Europe after defeats by Royal Navy. • Early American naval commanders: • Lieutenant William Bainbridgeis captured in Retaliation. • Commodore Thomas Truxtonin Constellation. • CaptainEdward Preble in Essex to the Pacific and East Indies. • U.S. naval funding again increased in 1799. • Large shipbuilding program increases size of U.S. Navy. • Treaty of Mortrefontaine - 1800. • 1778 Alliance and 1798 Decree nullified, recognizes US neutral rights

23. Thougts on Quasi-War • Washington, Adams, Jefferson: neutrality and free trade! • Guerre de course effective • British blockade of European ports prevented French fleet action

24. Republican Naval Policy • Thomas Jefferson elected in 1800. • Large reductions in Naval funding. • Republicans reduce federal taxation and spending. • All Navy ships sold except 13 frigates. • 7 of the 13 frigates in mothballs. • Jefferson’s “Gunboat” Navy -- a strictly defensive strategy. • Static and weak defense of American coast. • Floating gun platforms - reduced maneuverability.

25. The Barbary Wars 1801-1805

26. Barbary Wars 1801-1805 • Increasing tribute demands of North African states. • William Bainbridge forced to sail George Washington under Algerian flag with tribute to Ottoman sultan. • Undeclared war against the Barbary States begins - 1801. • Secretary of Navy Smith deploys Commodore Richard Dale to Mediterranean

27. Samuel Smith’s Instructions • Protection of American merchantmen vessels from non-European powers • Blockade would be strategy of choice • Seizure or destruction of ships- whether armed or not

28. Barbary Wars 1801-1805 • Early Commodores unsuccessful: • Robert Dale fails to be aggressive - resigns in 1802. • Thomas Truxton turns down command due to lack of a captain for his flagship and is dismissed from service. • Richard Morris - dismissed for “dilatory conduct”. • Commodore Edward Preble takes command - Sept 1803. • Aggressive tactics are highly successful. • “Preble’s Boys” will command U.S. ships in the War of 1812.

29. CommodoreEdwardPreble

30. Barbary Wars Operations p.26 • “Hard Luck” Captain William Bainbridge -- Philadelphia captured in Tripoli harbor and crew imprisoned. • Philadelphia held under Tripoli’s guns. • Lieutenant Stephen Decatur -- special warfare mission. • Uses captured Intrepid to board and burn Philadelphia. • Promoted to Captain at age 25. • Eaton’s march on Tripoli. • Includes First Lieutenant Presley O’Bannon and six Marines. • Capture of Derna in April 1805. • Awarded Mameluke sword by Prince Hamet - still used today. • “The shores of Tripoli.” • Boost in support for Marine Corps.

31. Burning of the Philadelphia “The most heroic and bold act of the age.” - Admiral Horatio Nelson

32. British Victory at Trafalgar • Great Britain secures command of the seas. • French threat to invade England ended. • Great Britain’s overseas commerce flourishes. • Royal Navy gains ability to threaten U.S. commerce with France and other countries. • French Navy declines in strength. • Napoleon’s army still supreme on European continent. • Continental System established in Europe to isolate Great Britain. • Napoleonic Wars continue until Napoleon is defeated by Britain’s Duke of Wellington at Waterloo - 1815.

33. War of 1812

34. Causes of the War of 1812 • British at war with France • British begin to seize U.S. Ships • Neutral rights categorized • Visit and search of merchant men by naval vessels • Ports closed in peacetime • Impressment

35. Neutral Rights of U.S. Shipping • Great Britain at war with the French Empire • British seize U.S. merchant ships. • Dispute over neutral rights: • Blockade • United States: Must be effective to be legal. • Great Britain: “Paper blockades” are binding. • Visit and search of merchants by naval vessels. • United States: Only in restricted areas. • Great Britain: Virtually anywhere on high seas. • Ports • United States: Can be open to neutral trade during war. • Great Britain: Must remain closed. • Impressment • United States: Search of neutral vessels for British subjects is illegal. • Great Britain: Search of neutral vessels for British subjects is okay.

36. Chesapeake - Leopard Affair -- 1807 • Impressment • USS Chesapeake attacked by HMS Leopard. • Issues • Sanctity of a warship as part of national territory. • American commanders unready to fight. • Result • American public opinion increases against Great Britain. • Jefferson imposes embargo on American merchants.

37. The Road to War • President Madison - 1809 • Begins to move naval policy away from building gunboats. • Responds to Congress’ wish to build up frigate Navy • Jeffersonian • 1 May 1811: HMS Guerrièreimpresses American seaman within sight of New York • 10 May 1811: USSPresident vs. HMSLittle Belt • John Rodgers • Destroys British sloop-of-war

38. The Road to War • 12th Congress: the “War Hawks” • Henry Clay of Kentucky • John C. Calhoun of South Carolina • Madison was onboard • coastal fortifications • limited activation of gunboats • offshore operation of frigates • recommendations for military augmentation

39. Congress Answered • Navy receives funds to refortify • dockyard for frigate repair • refused proposal for 10 new frigates and twelve 74s • Opponents of new Construction • Same arguments as before- but they’re valid

40. The Road to War • War in Europe turns in France’s favor -- 1812. • U.S. Declaration of war against Great Britain - June 1812. • Neutral rights, impressment, and Indian relations. • Minimal U.S. Army and Navy strength. • US is unprepared

41. Napoleonic Wars -- 1812-1815 • Continental Europe • Napoleon’s France (Land Power) versus Coalitions. • Maritime Europe • Great Britain (Sea Power) versus France (Severely weakened at sea by defeat at Trafalgar in 1805). • Naval Strategies • Britain blockades French ports. • French use “Continental System” as a blockade of British trade. • “Guerre de Course” -- Commerce Raiding • Practiced by both sides. • Includes privateering. • Global war: • Atlantic, West Indies, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, Pacific

42. U.S. Naval Policies • Strategy • Rodgers: Proponent of squadron operations. • Decatur: Proponent of single-ship operations. • Commerce Raiders • Atlantic Ocean • English Channel • USS Essex in the Pacific Ocean -- Captain David Porter • Raids on British whaling fleet. • Letters of marque issued to privateers. • Naval Administration • Small organization. • Inadequate coastal defenses. • Limited resources available. • Funding increases significantly during the course of the war.

43. Course of the War -- 1812 • Cruise of Commodore Rodgers' squadron unsuccessful. • Single-ship engagements won by Americans: • USS Constitution versus HMS Guerriere • Captain Isaac Hull • USS United States versus HMS Macedonian • Captain Stephen Decatur • USS Constitution versus HMS Java • Captain William Bainbridge • Superiority of U.S. ships, training, and commanders is evident. • Naval victories increase morale and support. • Congress authorizes expanded naval building program. • Unsuccessful American invasion of Canada. • Detroit occupied by British and Indians - threat to NW Territory.

44. USS Constitution “Old Ironsides”

45. Course of the War -- 1813 • British Strategy • Victories in Europe allow movement of ships and troops from Europe to America. • Increase blockade on American ports. • Raid American coasts. • USS Chesapeake versus HMS Shannon • Great Lakes Campaign

46. Captain James Lawrence USS Chesapeake “Don’t give up the ship!”

47. Great Lakes Campaign – 1813 p.48 • British supply forces via St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes. • Control of communications routes on the lakes is necessary. • Lake Ontario • Commodore Isaac Chauncey and Commodore Sir James Yeo. • Shipbuilding race and lack of initiative lead to stalemate. • Lake Erie • Oliver Hazard Perry • Flagship: Named USS Lawrence in honor of fallen friend. • Defeats British fleet in the Battle of Lake Erie. • “We have met the enemy and they are ours .” • British forces cut off from supplies. • General William Henry Harrison receives Perry’s message, recaptures Detroit, and defeats British and Indians at the Battle of the Thames. • Indian leader Tecumseh is killed and NW Territory secured for U.S.

48. Battle of Lake Erie - Perry transfers flag from Lawrence to Niagara.

49. Course of the War – 1814 p.52 • British blockade of American ports - highly effective. • American Navy unable to sortie. • U.S. economy in decline due to reduced maritime commerce. • Washington Campaign • British forces raid Chesapeake. • Washington burned. • Baltimore -- Fort McHenry - Star Spangled Banner. • Militia and gunboats very ineffective for coastal defense. • Battle of Lake Champlain near Plattsburg. • Commodore Thomas MacDonough • British invasion of New York from Canada. • British defeated and retreat to Canada.

50. Peace and Aftermath • Great Britain agrees to peace. • American victories at Lake Erie and Lake Champlain. • American privateers capture British merchants. • Treaty of Ghent -- 24 December 1814 • “Status Quo Ante Bellum” • British end impressment of American seamen. • Battle of New Orleans -- 1815 • Occurred after peace treaty signed. • Gunboats delay British at Lake Borgne. • British defeated by General Andrew Jackson’s makeshift army. • Victories in Creek War and at New Orleans - emerges as national hero.