Chapter 7 Control of Microorganisms

1. Chapter 7Control of Microorganisms • Definitions • Conditions Influencing Antimicrobial Activity • Physical Methods • Chemical Agents • Preservation of Microbial Cultures

2. Definitions • Sterilization: A treatment that kills or removes all living cells, including viruses and spores, from a substance or object • Disinfection: A treatment that reduces the total number of microbes on an object or surface, but does not necessarily remove or kill all of the microbes • Antiseptic: A mild disinfectant agent suitable for use on skin surfaces

3. Definitions • Sanitation: Reduction of the microbial population to levels considered safe by public health standards • -cidal: A suffix meaning that “the agent kills.” For example, a bacteriocidal agent kills bacteria • -static: A suffix that means “the agent inhibits growth.” For example, a fungistatic agent inhibits the growth of fungi, but doesn’t necessarily kill it.

4. Conditions Influencing Antimicrobial Activity • Under most circumstances, a microbial population is not killed instantly by an agent but instead over a period of time • The death of the population over time is exponential, similar to the growth during log phase

5. Conditions Influencing Antimicrobial Activity • Several critical factors play key roles in determining the effectiveness of an antimicrobial agent, including: • Population size • Types of organisms • Concentration of the antimicrobial agent • Duration of exposure • Temperature • pH • Organic matter • Biofilm formation

6. Physical Methods • Moist Heat • Dry Heat • Low Temperatures • Filtration • Radiation

7. Physical Methods: Moist Heat • Mechanism of killing is a combinantion of protein/nucleic acid denaturation and membrane disruption • Bacterial spores much more difficult to kill than vegetative cells

8. Physical Methods: Moist Heat • Methods of Moist Heat • Boiling at 100°C • Effective against most vegetative cells; ineffective against spores; unsuitable for heat sensitive chemicals & many foods • Autoclaving/pressure canning • Temperatures above 100°C achieved by steam pressure • Most procedures use 121.1°C, achieved at approx. 15 psi pressure, with 15 - 30 min autoclave time to ensure sterilization • Sterilization in autoclave in biomedical or clinical laboratory must be periodically validated by testing with spores of Clostridium or Bacillus stearothermophilus

9. Physical Methods: Moist Heat • Methods of Moist Heat • Pasteurization • Used to reduce microbial numbers in milk and other beverages while retaining flavor and food quality of the beverage • Retards spoilage but does not sterilize • Traditional treatment of milk, 63°C for 30 min • Flash pasteurization (high-temperature short term pasteurization); quick heating to about 72°C for 15 sec, then rapid cooling

10. Physical Methods: Moist Heat • Methods of Moist Heat • Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) sterilization • Milk and similar products heated to 140 - 150°C for 1 - 3 sec • Very quickly sterilizes the milk while keeping its flavor & quality • Used to produce the packaged “shelf milk” that does not require refrigeration

11. Physical Methods: Dry Heat • Incineration • Burner flames • Electric loop incinerators • Air incinerators used with fermenters; generally operated at 500°C • Oven sterilization • Used for dry glassware & heat-resistant metal equipment • Typically 2 hr at 160°C is required to kill bacterial spores by dry heat: this does not include the time for the glass to reach the required temp (penetration time) nor does it include the cooling time

12. Physical Methods:Low Temperatures • Refrigerator: • around 4°C • inhibits growth of mesophiles or thermophiles; psychrophiles will grow • Freezer: • “ordinary” freezer around -10 to -20°C • “ultracold” laboratory freezer typically -80°C • Generally inhibits all growth; many bacteria and other microbes may survive freezing temperatures

13. Physical Methods: Filtration • Used for physically removing microbes and dust particles from solutions and gasses; often used to sterilize heat-sensitive solutions or to provide a sterilized air flow • Depth filters: eg. Diatomaceous earth, unglazed porcelean • Membrane filters: eg. Nitrocellulose, nylon, polyvinylidene difluoride • HEPA filters: High efficiency particulate air filters used in laminar flow biological safety cabinets

14. Physical Methods: Radiation • Non-Ionizing Radiation Ultraviolet Radiation • DNA absorbs ultraviolet radiation at 260 nm wavelength • This causes damage to DNA in the form of thymine dimer mutations • Useful for continuous disinfection of work surfaces, e.g. in biological safety cabinets

16. Physical Methods: Radiation • Ionizing Radiation • Gamma radiation produced by Cobalt-60 source • Powerful sterilizing agent; penetrates and damages both DNA and protein; effective against both vegetative cells and spores • Often used for sterilizing disposable plastic labware, e.g. petri dishes; as well as antibiotics, hormones, sutures, and other heat-sensitive materials • Also can be used for sterilization of food; has been approved but has not been widely adopted by the food industry

17. Chemical Agents • Phenolics • Alcohols • Halogens • Heavy metals • Quaternary Ammonium Compounds • Aldehydes • Sterilizing Gases • Evaluating Effectiveness of Chemical Agents

18. Chemical Agents: Phenolics • Aromatic organic compounds with attached -OH • Denature protein & disrupt membranes • Phenol, orthocresol, orthophenylphenol, hexachlorophene • Commonly used as disinfectants (e.g. “Lysol”); effective in presence of organic matter, remain on surfaces long after application • Disagreeable odor & skin irritation; hexachlorophene once used as an antiseptic but its use is limited as it causes brain damage

19. Chemical Agents: Alcohols • Ethanol; isopropanol; used at concentrations between 70 – 95% • Denature proteins; disrupt membranes • Kills vegetative cells of bacteria & fungi but not spores • Used in disinfecting surfaces; thermometers; “ethanol-flaming” technique used to sterilize glass plate spreaders or dissecting instruments at the lab bench

20. Chemical Agents: Halogens • Act as oxidizing agents; oxidize proteins & other cellular components • Chlorine compounds • Used in disinfecting municiple water supplies (as sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, or chlorine gas) • Sodium Hypochlorite (Chlorine Bleach) used at 10 - 20% dilution as benchtop disinfectant • Halazone tablets (parasulfone dichloroamidobenzoic acid) used by campers to disinfect water for drinking

21. Chemical Agents: Halogens • Iodine Compounds • Tincture of iodine (iodine solution in alcohol) • Potassium iodide in aqueous solution • Iodophors: Iodine complexed to an organic carrier; e.g. Wescodyne, Betadyne • Used as antiseptics for cleansing skin surfaces and wounds

22. Chemical Agents: Heavy Metals • Mercury, silver, zinc, arsenic, copper ions • Form precipitates with cell proteins • At one time were frequently used medically as antiseptics but much of their use has been replaced by less toxic alternatives • Examples: 1% silver nitrate was used as opthalmic drops in newborn infants to prevent gonorrhea; has been replaced by erythromycin or other antibiotics; copper sulfate used as algicide in swimming pools

23. Chemical Agents: QuaternaryAmmonium Compounds • Quaternary ammonium compounds are cationic detergents • Amphipathic molecules that act as emulsifying agents • Denature proteins and disrupt membranes • Used as disinfectants and skin antiseptics • Examples: cetylpyridinium chloride, benzalkonium chloride

24. Chemical Agents: Aldehydes • Formaldehyde and gluteraldehyde • React chemically with nucleic acid and protein, inactivating them • Aqueous solutions can be used as disinfectants

25. Chemical Agents: Sterilizing Gases • Ethylene oxide (EtO) • Used to sterilize heat-sensitive equipment and plasticware • Explosive; supplied as a 10 – 20% mixture with either CO2 or dichlorofluoromethane • Its use requires a special EtO sterilizer to carefully control sterilization conditions as well as extensive ventilation after sterilization because of toxicity of EtO • Much of the commercial use of EtO (for example, plastic petri dishes) has in recent years been replaced by gamma irradiation

26. Chemical Agents: Sterilizing Gases • Betapropiolactone (BPL) • In its liquid form has been used to sterilize vaccines and sera • Decomposes after several hours and is not as difficult to eliminate as EtO, but it doesn’t penetrate as well as EtO and may also be carcinogenic • Has not been used as extensively as EtO • Vapor-phase hydrogen peroxide • Has been used recently to decontaminate biological safety cabinets

27. Chemical Agents:Evaluating the Effectiveness • Phenol Coefficient Test • A series of dilutions of phenol and the experimental disinfectant are inoculated with Salmonella typhi and Staphylococcus aureus and incubated at either 20°C or 37°C • Samples are removed at 5 min intervals and inoculated into fresh broth • The cultures are incubated at 37°C for 2 days • The highest dilution that kills the bacteria after a 10 min exposure, but not after 5 min, is used to calculate the phenol coefficient

28. Chemical Agents:Evaluating the Effectiveness • Phenol Coefficient Test (cont.) • The reciprocal of the maximum effective dilution for the test disinfectant is divided by the reciprocal of the maximum effective dilution for phenol to get the phenol coefficient • For example:Suppose that, on the test with Salmonella typhiThe maximum effective dilution for phenol is 1/90The maximum effective dilution for “Disinfectant X” is 1/450The phenol coefficient for “Disinfectant X” with S. typhi = 450/90 = 5

29. Chemical Agents:Evaluating the Effectiveness • Phenol Coefficient Test (cont.) • Phenol coefficients are useful as an initial screening and comparison, but can be misleading because they only compare two pure strains under specific controlled conditions • Use dilution tests and simulated in-use tests • Are tests designed to more closely approximate actual normal in-use conditions of a disinfectant

30. Preservation of Microbial Cultures • Periodic Transfer and Refrigeration • Mineral Oil Slant • Freezing in Growth Medium • Drying • Lyophilization • Ultracold Freezing

31. Preservation of Microbial Cultures:Periodic Transfer and Refrigeration • Stock cultures are aseptically transferred at appropriate intervals to fresh medium and incubated, then stored at 4°C until they are transferred again • Many labs use “agar slants;” care has to be taken to avoid contamination • Major problem with possible genetic changes in strains; most labs need a way to keep “long term” storage of original genetic stocks

32. Preservation of Microbial Cultures:Mineral Oil Slant • Sterile mineral oil placed over growth on agar slants to preserve cultures for longer period of time in the refrigerator • Contamination problems; messy; many organisms are sensitive to this; generally it is a poor technique and doesn’t work well

33. Preservation of Microbial Cultures:Freezing in Growth Medium • Used as a “long term” storage strategy • Broth cultures of the organisms are frozen at -20°C • Often, sterile glycerin (glycerol) is added at a 25 – 50% final concentration; this helps to prevent ice crystal formation and increases viability of many organisms

34. Preservation of Microbial Cultures:Drying • Suitable for some bacterial species • Samples are grown on sterile paper disks saturated with nutrient, then the disks are allowed to air dry and stored aseptically • Reconstituted by dropping disk into nutrient broth medium

35. Preservation of Microbial Cultures:Lyophilization • Suitable for many bacterial species as well as fungi and viruses • Broth cultures are placed in special ampules and attached to a vacuum pump; the vacuum removes all of the water from the cells leaving a “freeze-dried” powder • The culture is reconstituted by adding broth to the lyophilized powder and incubating it • Considered the best method of long-term storage for most bacterial species

36. Preservation of Microbial Cultures:Ultracold Freezing • Similar to freezing, but at very cold temperature • At about -70 to -80°C, in liquid nitrogen or in an ultracold freezer unit