Handbook of Language & Ethnicity

Handbook of Language & Ethnicity Chapter 20: Scandinavia By Leena Huss & Anna-Riita Lindgren

Languages of the Nordic Countries • Denmark (Danish) • Faroes (Faroese + Danish) • Greenland (Inuit + Danish) • Finland (Finnish + Swedish + Sámi) • Åland Islands (Swedish) • Sweden (Swedish + Finnish + Sámi) • Norway (Norwegian + Finnish + Sámi) • [Finnish minorities are Tornedalian/Kven and also 20th c immigrants] • There are also heterogeneous immigrants (10% in Sweden, 1.4% in Finland)

Ethnic Revival • Sámi movement began in 1950s and has become more vigorous; struggle against the Alta dam in 1970s and 1980s led to massive protests and organization; they lost the battle but made the majority take them seriously • Tornedalian/Kven begin their movement in 1970s/80s • Ethnic revival “forces the majorities to reassess their thoughts and actions”

Minority Movements as Emancipation Politics • Emancipation politics restructures hierarchies • In Nordic countries these are gradual reformations, not revolutions • 19th c nationalism emancipated Faroese, Finnish, and Norwegian, which had previously been dominated by Swedish and Danish • But as some identities were formed, they in turn persecuted others, targeting them with assimilation policies

Revitalization of minority languages • This begins in 1960s • Ethnic activists do not strive for a state or monolingualism, they wish to develop their cultures without being stigmatized • Aims are pluralistic state, tolerance, internationalism • There have been some backlash phenomena, especially anti-Sámi groups in Norway and Finland

Language and Identity in Nordic Countries • Ethnic revival: • Arctic minorities (Sámi & Tornedalian/Kven) in Norway, Sweden, Finland • Sámi in Norway & Tornedalians (both 40K) > Sámi in Sweden (20K) > Kven (10,000) > Sámi in Finland (6,500) • Sweden Finns (Finnish immigrants in Sweden; 400K, an urban minority)

Where are the Tornedalians? • Who are the Kven?

Ethnic Minorities in the Arctic Areas • Multiculturalism and multilingualism was the norm, though one’s living was gained through the native language • Late 19th c countries adopted assimilation policies • Modernization came after WWII, brought schooling (often boarding schools), transportation, media -- integrated Arctic into the nation-states

Ethnic Minorities in the Arctic Areas, cont’d. • Laestadianism (religious movement) promoted minority languages and opposed modernization & assimilation • Building of the welfare state addressed poverty and inequality by treating all the same > assimilation • Modernization did not come at the same time everywhere -- in coastal areas where it came earlier, there was more assimilation/loss of language -- where it came later, ethnic revival came soon enough to save culture

Ethnic Minorities in the Arctic Areas, cont’d. • Ethnic revival redefined democracy to include pluralism, guaranteeing right to ethnic identity along with citizenship • 1970s -- realization that modernization was destroying the environment • Minority cultures gained respect for their knowledge of sustainable use of the Arctic

On Identity Strategies and Language • Many minority people have migrated out of traditional areas to cities, where there is less access to minority language in school • Great individual variation between ethnic activists who choose to use minority language and others who try to cover up their ethnicity • Usually the minority language is not used as a written language, except by a very few, though this is changing

On Identity Strategies and Language, cont’d. • What is the “real” minority culture? Is it confined to the old traditions of previous generations? • Stereotype of minority culture focuses on the past, not on the present reality, creating a tension • Minorities should have the right to modernize without compromising their identity • At the same time, past traditions need to be valued, rather than seen as “primitive”

On the Identity of the Group and the Language • Establishment of ethnonyms • Rehabilitation of formerly pejorative “Kven” • “Lapp” > “Sámi” • Development of written languages • Acknowledgement of status of languages • Kven/Tornedalian as a separate language, not a dialect of Finnish

The Sweden Finns • Debate and confusion over bilingualism • Studies showed benefits of bilingualism, but • Parents were often encouraged to use majority language with children, even if they spoke it badly • 1976 Swedish Home Language Reform -- immigrant & minority children have right to receive instruction in the language that is “a living part of the home environment” • But in reality, this policy was assimilationist, merely providing transition to majority language • 1980s-90s both activist and anti-pluralist groups have gained strength and home-language instruction has been reduced -- “Swedish-only” ideology & recession

Sweden Finnish Minority Identity • Sweden Finns are the largest minority group in Scandinavia, and Swedish-Finnish cooperation is historically strong, yet Sweden Finns are strongly stigmatized, despite support from EU and even from Swedes in Finland • Proposed creation of Sweden Finnish Parliament (like Finland Swedish Parliament and the Sámi Parliaments) • Some have tried to establish private schools for Finnish in Sweden • 1975 Sweden Finnish Language Board deals with issues of variance from standard Finnish

Ethnic Languages and Minority Populations • Scandinavian speakers (Swedes, Danes, Norwegians) share a linguistic unity, and all others are in a linguistically weaker situation • There is some debate over the role of English as a language of Nordic cooperation

Summary • Assimilation has been challenged by ethnic revival • Ethnic revival aims for pluralistic, multilingual society (at odds with nationalism) • Schooling, media, and public life play crucial role in minority language survival • Creating “a world tolerant of linguistic and ethnic diversity” is a challenge for the future

Handbook of Language & Ethnicity