Task as workspace for language learning and teaching

1. Task as workspace for language learning and teaching Martin Bygate St Mary’s University College, Twickenham & Lancaster University, UK

2. Task as workspace for language use and development Draw and number the boxes Throw the stone in the right square Hop or jump Do it in the right order Don’t step outside box, or fall over!

3. Language learning and task learning Language as a tool to learn to perform structured activities… ‘That box should be number 3’ ‘Your stone missed the box!’ ‘You didn’t hop – you got to hop!’ ‘But you didn’t do it in the right order!’ ‘You’re out - you stepped outside the box!’ ‘And he fell over!’

4. Variations are possible …without using a stone……. ….working as a team

5. Learning Language as a tool to learn to perform structured activities… …individually or……. ….jointly! 1) The task focuses, and helps understanding of language 2) Language helps perform the task

6. Painting a fence (one everyday task) Cf. Long & Crookes 1993/2008

7. Painting a fence (one everyday task) Preparing the materials, paint, fence and brush Painting the wooden slats, top to bottom, & all the edges Moving the paint pot! Cleaning up! Learning through doing! Cf. Long & Crookes 1993/2008

8. Organisation of the rest of this talk • Tasks in everyday life, work and play and in education • Students’ language on three tasks (PLUS one) • Task as the ‘hub’ of lessons: increasing our options • Conclusion

9. TBLT as a view of language use and learning Much of our language is naturally learned and used in the context of structured and self-structuring activities and tasks, in everyday life, and at work and at play.

10. Language use in self-structured contexts doctor’s consultations interviews at the bank exchanging news at the end of the day check-in desks at airports Everyday contexts: Using the computer for writing, email, preparing materials, preparing talks and lessons, using spread sheets service encounters in shops organising one’s children service encounters in restaurants Meetings At work Joint planning, managing, evaluating Providing goods and services At play

11. Language use in self-structured contexts doctor’s consultations interviews at the bank exchanging news at the end of the day check-in desks at airports Everyday contexts: Using the computer for writing, email, preparing materials, preparing talks and lessons, using spread sheets service encounters in shops organising one’s children service encounters in restaurants Meetings Singing and music At work telling stories Dance & theatre Joint planning, managing, evaluating Providing goods and services At play Planning activities Walking and climbing Pottery…. sports Photography & painting cooking

12. School learning through tasks Maths tasks Science tasks Geography tasks tasks in technology and ICT in drama and music History tasks Economics tasks in sports TBL continues into adulthood, at work, at play, and in everyday life. Cf. Mercer & Hodgkinson (eds) 2008

13. Rationale for the use of tasks for teaching language TBLT sees tasks as providing a workspace for learning and teaching language through use, and around use. • Tasks provide contexts which support, focus and challenge learners’ thinking and communicating • Language as a tool for completion of the activity Tasks seen as activities in which learners develop knowledge of language, and the skills to use it while working towards communicative outcomes

14. So what questions might we ask about how tasks develop language knowledge and skills? Language: (NOTE THE RELEVANCE ALSO FOR TESTING!) • What domains (or sets) of vocabulary to refer to people, objects, and processes – e.g. in the kitchen, the factory, the farm, on the railway, in travel, buildings, food, or management? • What types of discourse – e.g. description, narration, instruction, description of processes, explanation, advising, questioning and answering….? Tasks in lessons: • How can different tasks be used in lessons to develop language? DO RESEARCHERS AND METHODO LOGISTS FOCUS ON THESE THINGS? NO!!!

15. Limitations in research to date: focusing away from the clasroom Interaction hypothesis Theory:acquisition seems to derive from: Mutual attempts to understand each other i.e. ‘negotiation of meaning’; ‘Recasts’ – implicit corrective feedback: Research focused on: how far students check clarify and correct each other’s expression; the impact of negotiation on acquisition (e.g. Long, Doughty, Gass, Mackey, McDonough, Pica, Ross-Feldman) • Skill theory • Theory:Language development involves combining complexity, accuracy and fluency, but attention cannot be given to all three simultaneously. • Researchfocus on: • impact of tasks or task conditions (e.g. with or without pre-task planning) on students’ focus on fluency, or accuracy or complexity; • whether there is a trade-off between the three. • (e.g. Skehan, Foster, Ellis, Robinson, Gilabert) Socio-cultural theory Theory: All learning seems to derive from co-construction between learner and other – i.e. joint attempts to make meaning. Research: focused on identifying processes of co-construction of utterances, of discourse and of task performance – how students ensure that they develop joint understanding (Lantolf, Swain, Duff, Donato) Relatively little research has focused on the language of learners, or on how teachers can exploit pedagogical tasks in their teaching.

16. A classroom perspective: a need to shift the focus to pedagogical questions If teachers are to use tasks to teach with… What kinds of language do students actually use on tasks? How can teachers use tasks for teaching language?

17. In what follows then … A definition of task: An activity for learning language requiring a non-linguistic outcome (the answer to a problem, a decision, a plan, a picture or diagram, a story, a table or chart) which students complete using whatever language they wish. Focus on three tasks( + one)….. ….differing in two main ways: 1) The types of phases the students went through to complete the task; 2) The features of language the students used in completing the task

18. The three tasks? S3: yeah – eh in the cafeteria is a man drinking coffee S2: right S3: yamhm - - mm mm S1: er a man is getting . out of the cafeteria er with a bags S2: right S1: I see here there’s a woman who is in the cafeteria S2: I don’t have it S1: no – oh well - - there are some er advertisements of picture behind the woman Ap: But er, in my picture is pretty much the same thing. Yas: Mine too Ap: Yeh, but erm the; so we all get the same? … Ok and err. <<Laughter>> Ap: Oh so you have the bird, the bird eating the food. Am: Yeah Ap: What do you have? Yan: There is no food in my picture. Yas: My dog looks happy, and excited, and bird is on the left side and the food is on the right side. Several: Yeah S10: right – you may ask – very easy S9: is it your country S10: well not – not our country but S9: a proper foreign country I mean – limiting our country S10: no no no S9: they want to be part of our country or they want our country to be part of theirs S10: aha I suppose so I suppose at least we – at least we are very interested in that country S9: it’s aha we’re very interested in that country

19. The three sample tasks for discussion (+ one) 1) A picture differences activity: pairs of students have similar pictures and talk to each other to find out the differences (outcome: students find a number of differences) 2) A 20-questions game: students ask questions to enable them to work out a word on a students’ card (outcome: succeed or fail to work out the word) 3) A picture story activity: students find story in pictures without seeing each others’ (outcome: students may or may finish by telling the story PLUS 4) Followed by a fourth task to illustrate a further relationship between task and language.

20. S2: OK this – seems to be the hall of a strain of a train station S1: mhm S2: it says south croydon at the top S1: mhm S2: a sign and then I can see a> buffet or a cafeteria there is a clock on – on the top – of the door that is open and a man is – getting away – through the door – he’s running – then I can see next to the door a> a window on the right through the widow I can see a man – drinking – coffee pr tea because he has a . cup . in his hand . there’s a little boy – outside – on the hall erm below the> the window then at the right hand so I’m just going from left to right S1: mhm S2: then there’s an old lady who’s wearing a hat – carrying a handbag – wearing a coat a long coat – she is making /xxx/ the signs that says way out toilets buffet there are two er how you say two posters S1: aha S2: and also there is below the posters – on the – on the floor next to the wall there is a – suitcase and a umbrella and an umbrella S1: OK S2: it’s twelve o’clock on the top – on the top of the door S1: OK so mine is very similar – but on the top of the> er door there is a clock also but it is not twelve o’clock – it’s just ten o’clock ten yes – one difference …… ….. S3: yeah – eh in the cafeteria is a man drinking coffee S2: right S3: ya mhm - - mm mm S1: er a man is getting . out of the cafeteria er with a bags S2: right S1: I see here there’s a woman who is in the cafeteria S2: I don’t have it S1: no – oh well - - there are some er advertisements of picture behind the woman S2: right - what do they say S1: myeah one says mo mo motorail and the other interci S2: above that S1: myeah you have way way out toilet and buffet S2: y how’bout the> - clock , on the wall - what time is it S1: the time it’s at twelve o’clock S2: I got ten o’clock S1: you have ten S2: then we have two differences …..

21. S2: OK this – seems to be the hall of a strain of a train station S1: mhm S2: it says south croydon at the top S1: mhm S2: a sign and then I can see a> buffet or a cafeteria there is a clock on – on the top – of the door that is open and a man is – getting away – through the door – he’s running – then I can see next to the door a> a window on the right through the widow I can see a man – drinking – coffee or tea because he has a . cup . in his hand . there’s a little boy – outside – on the hall erm below the> the window then at the right hand so I’m just going from left to right S1: mhm S2: then there’s an old lady who’s wearing a hat – carrying a handbag – wearing a coat a long coat – she is making /xxx/ the signs that says way out toilets buffet there are two er how you say two posters S1: aha S2: and also there is below the posters – on the – on the floor next to the wall there is a – suitcase and a umbrella and an umbrella S1: OK S2: it’s twelve o’clock on the top – on the top of the door S1: OK so mine is very similar – but on the top of the> er door there is a clock also but it is not twelve o’clock – it’s just ten o’clock ten yes – one difference …… ….. S3: yeah – eh in the cafeteria is a man drinking coffee S2: right S3: ya mhm - - mm mm S1: er a man is getting . out of the cafeteria er with a bags S2: right S1: I see here there’s a woman who is in the cafeteria S2: I don’t have it S1: no – oh well - - there are some er advertisements of picture behind the woman S2: right - what do they say S1: myeah one says mo mo motorail and the other interci S2: above that S1: myeah you have way way out toilet and buffet S2: y how’bout the> - clock , on the wall - what time is it S1: the time it’s at twelve o’clock S2: I got ten o’clock S1: you have ten S2: then we have two differences …..

22. S2: OK this – seems to be the hall of a strain of a train station S1: mhm S2: it says south croydon at the top S1: mhm S2: a sign and then I can see a> buffet or a cafeteria there is a clock on – on the top – of the door that is open and a man is – getting away – through the door – he’s running – then I can see next to the door a> a window on the right through the window I can see a man – drinking – coffee pr tea because he has a . cup . in his hand . there’s a little boy – outside – on the hall erm below the> the window then at the right hand so I’m just going from left to right S1: mhm S2: then there’s an old lady who’s wearing a hat – carrying a handbag – wearing a coat a long coat – she is making /xxx/ the signs that says way out toilets buffet there are two er how you say two posters S1: aha S2: and also there is below the posters – on the – on the floor next to the wall there is a – suitcase and a umbrella and an umbrella S1: OK S2: it’s twelve o’clock on the top – on the top of the door S1: OK so mine is very similar – but on the top of the> er door there is a clock also but it is not twelve o’clock – it’s just ten o’clock ten yes – one difference …… ….. S3: yeah – eh in the cafeteria is a man drinking coffee S2: right S3: ya mhm - - mm mm S1: er a man is getting . out of the cafeteria er with a bags S2: right S1: I see here there’s a woman who is in the cafeteria S2: I don’t have it S1: no – oh well - - there are some er advertisements of picture behind the woman S2: right - what do they say S1: myeah one says mo mo motorail and the other interci S2: above that S1: myeah you have way way out toilet and buffet S2: y how’bout the> - clock , on the wall - what time is it S1: the time it’s at twelve o’clock S2: I got ten o’clock S1: you have ten S2: then we have two differences …..

23. S10: right – you may ask – very easy S9: is it your country S10: well not – not our country but S9: a proper foreign country I mean – limiting our country S10: no no no S9: they want to be part of our country or they want our country to be part of theirs S10: aha I suppose so I suppose at least we – at least we are very interested in that country S9: it’s aha we’re very interested in that country […] S11: it’s at the north or the south of peru S10: it’s at the north the very north of peru S9: towards ecuador perhaps S10: no S11: - - - it limits with peru S10: no it’s very far from peru S12: mexico S9: ah S10: it’s at the north of peru , right but it’s very far from peru S11: not lmiting peru S9: it cou-ld be in europe [laughter] S11: ehm is it to the> . pacific ocean S10: it it has . a part of it has . er it limits with the pacific ocean S9: so it’s in north south or central america S10: north america S9: so it’s the united states S10: yes

24. S15: how many peoples mm habitants S14: this country (laughs) – has - - - I d’no about er this is a . you know this is a . small country – which has . a lot of people S15: mhm S14: a lot of people S15: a lot of people S14: lot and lots of people I think it has more people . than it should have S13: mhm S14: OK S13: mhm S14: another question S13: mhm a developed or a un or a> developing country S14: it’s a developing country very developing country S13: developing country S14: yes S15: culturally S13: I mean . developed . are the ones already developed like united states and all S14: it’s a developed . ‘ts a developed

25. 10: right – you may ask – very easy S9: is it your country S10: well not – not our country but S9: a proper foreign country I mean – limiting our country S10: no no no S9: they want to be part of our country or they want our country to be part of theirs S10: aha I suppose so I suppose at least we – at least we are very interested in that country S9: it’s aha we’re very interested in that country […] S11: it’s at the north or the south of peru S10: it’s at the north the very north of peru S9: towards ecuador perhaps S10: no S11: - - - it limits with peru S10: no it’s very far from peru S12: mexico S9: ah S10: it’s at the north of peru , right but it’s very far from peru S11: not limiting peru S9: it cou-ld be in europe [laughter] S11: ehm is it to the> . pacific ocean S10: it it has . a part of it has . er it limits with the pacific ocean S9: soit’s in north south or central america S10: north america S9: so it’s the united states S10: yes

26. Ap: But er, in my picture is pretty much the same thing. Yas: Mine too Ap: Yeh, but erm the; so we all get the same? … Ok and err. <<Laughter>> Ap: Oh so you have the bird, the bird eating the food. Am: Yeah Ap: What do you have? Yan: There is no food in my picture. Yas: My dog looks happy, and excited, and bird is on the left side and the food is on the right side. Several: Yeah G: My dog look not surprised, but kind of, no, yes surprised. He’s surprised by something. But I don’t know what the bird did. But the dog is surprised by, by something, you know kind of, not surprised in the sense that you know when you kind of you are surprised but scared by something, you know the first reaction you have. And it’s kind of, he’s kind of reacting like that. G: and then the bird I mean arrive next to the food and the dog is surprised and the dog is kin(d) of not so happy that the bird is xxx the food at him. And the dog wants to get rid of the bird but kind of scared at the same time so … that it Yan: I have maybe the wrong sequence. Just the dog just come from another place and then and then went to the bird and the bird flying to a branch not on a not on ground and maybe the black stuff everyone see is food and I think also it’s food <<Laughter>> on the right side. I can see a high, maybe it’s like tree, a high on .. in the middle, so this all the information. Am: in my picture the dog is .. is connected to the tree and it is very very angry, and the bird is on the ground close to the food and it is eating the food .. from the dishes Am: He is very very angry, there, it looks like smoke Ap: so the bird could tie the dog up and that would be a nice idea but G: Mmm, no. I don’t think so. Just the bird wanted to eat something so and then maybe the dog Yan: I think maybe the bird eat the leader of the dog Ap: Leader? Yan: Leade Ap: So what’s the sequence? G: I don’t know xxx Ap: It starts, it either starts with hers and ends with hers or ends with h, um begins with her and ends with hers Am: I think for me my picture is the last Ap: Ok, so then it begins Yan: I think my picture maybe in the middle… not er start

27. Ap: But er, in my picture is pretty much the same thing. Yas: Mine too Ap: Yeh, but erm the; so we all get the same? … Ok and err. <<Laughter>> Ap: Oh so you have the bird, the bird eating the food. Am: Yeah Ap: What do you have? Yan: There is no food in my picture. Yas: My dog looks happy, and excited, and bird is on the left side and the food is on the right side. Several: Yeah G: My dog look not surprised, but kind of, no, yes surprised. He’s surprised by something. But I don’t know what the bird did. But the dog is surprised by, by something, you know kind of, not surprised in the sense that you know when you kind of you are surprised but scared by something, you know the first reaction you have. And it’s kind of, he’s kind of reacting like that. G: and then the bird I mean arrive next to the food and the dog is surprised and the dog is kin(d) of not so happy that the bird is xxx the food at him. And the dog wants to get rid of the bird but kind of scared at the same time so … that it Yan: I have maybe the wrong sequence. Just the dog just come from another place and then and then went to the bird and the bird flying to a branch not on a not on ground and maybe the black stuff everyone see is food and I think also it’s food <<Laughter>> on the right side. I can see a high, maybe it’s like tree, a high on .. in the middle, so this all the information. Am: in my picture the dog is .. is connected to the tree and it is very very angry, and the bird is on the ground close to the food and it is eating the food .. from the dishes Am: He is very very angry, there, it looks like smoke Ap: so the bird could tie the dog up and that would be a nice idea but G: Mmm, no. I don’t think so. Just the bird wanted to eat something so and then maybe the dog Yan: I think maybe the bird eat the leader of the dog Ap: Leader? Yan: Leade Ap: So what’s the sequence? G: I don’t know xxx Ap: It starts, it either starts with hers and ends with hers or ends with h, um begins with her and ends with hers Am: I think for me my picture is the last Ap: Ok, so then it begins Yan: I think my picture maybe in the middle… not er start

28. Naturally occurring phases in the tasks • Picture differences • Phase 1: students focus on discovering the differences in two ways: • a) they describe their pictures to each other, and spot the differences as they listen • b) they ask each other information about things they have in their own pictures • Phase 2: agree and summarise the differences they have found 20-questions: ‘What’s my country’ One single phase repeated: students ask questions in turn until one of them gives the correct name of the country; This phase is repeated when another student draws a card with the name of a different country. Picture story task Phases: a) in turn students each describe their own picture b) students comment on similarities and differences between their pictures c) students suggest possible sequences based on the similarities and differences d) students suggest a full story sequence, sometimes repeating it to check e) students sometimes then told the sequence as a story

29. Some aspects of the phases • Students are not told to use the phases – they use them naturally because they find them useful 2) Some tasks involve single phases if that is all that is needed; some involve multiple phases where it is helpful to break the task down into stages 3) Single phase tasks involve repetition of the phases for a new version of the same task (when another student draws a card); if the cards are all the same kind of word (a country, an animal, an electrical appliance) then similar questions become routine; 4) In multi-phase tasks different phases often give rise to different features of language and different types of discourse.

30. Language features on the tasks • Spot the difference • Grammar: simple present, present progressive, interrogatives, parallel structures • Verbs: location, activity • Prepositions: location • Adjectives: appearance, attitude • 20-questions task ‘What’s my country?’ • Grammar: interrogatives, short utterances, echo responses • Verbs: be, have • Nouns: geographical terms, cultural features • Adjectives: size, wealth, temperature • Prepositions: location • Picture story • Describing: grammar, vocabulary, adjectives, adverbs (including mood and intention) • Similarities and differences: grammar, conjuncts • Trial sequencing: grammar, conjuncts • Sequencing: ditto

31. The fourth task: What language domain is likely on this task? An overcoat was found on a plane after a flight from San Francisco to London. The objects that you have in front of you were all found in the pockets of that overcoat. Can they tell us anything about the owner? As a group, look at everything carefully, and share your ideas about the identity of the owner of the overcoat. Be ready to present your group’s ideas about the person to the rest of the class, and to explain how certain you are about your ideas. You can use the chart to organise your ideas and to show how certain you are about each one. For example, if you are 100% certain that you know the person’s name, write it in column 3 (100% certain). But if you are not at all certain about the person’s name, use Column 1 (less than 50% certain). If you are almost certain that you know this person’s name, use Column 2 (90% certain).

32. Task as workspace for the lesson: how might the TIP task be used? • T asks students to guess what’s in her briefcase • T introduces topic, procedure - working in groups – and brief – to report back at the end • Distributes instructions, and the objects, and checks understanding • Students work in groups • After 5-7 minutes, T interrupts; gets preliminary thoughts; frames responses on a table 0% likely – 100% certain; introduces potentially useful expressions (adverbs, modals) • Students continue working in groups, now starting to use suggested expressions for specific meanings • At end of task, each group reports back; T insists on precise estimate of probability, focuses on modals, and provides recasts of target language • Specific grammar practice on target language

33. TBLT: A new option for the lesson plan FROM….the PPP cycle Present Production in context Practice TO… (cf Brumfit 1979) Present language items shown to be necessary for communication Practice/ drill as necessary Communicate as far as possible with all available resources

34. TBLT: A new option for the lesson plan FROM….the PPP cycle Present Production in context Practice TO…a task-based cycle (cf Brumfit 1979) IN CONTEXT OF TASK: Present language items shown to be necessary for communication Practice/ drill as necessary TASK: Communicate as far as possible with all available resources

35. Task as ‘hub’ in a lesson Teacher’s interactive introduction, input, cuing of meanings & key language, guidance • Possible pre-task activities • Priming of topic or theme • Initial key language input • Task instructions • Pre-class student preparation • Student sharing of information • Student planning and rehearsal • Possible practice activities • exercises • role plays • Post-task follow up activities: • Oral report • Written document • Poster • Written report • Practice activities • exercises • role plays TASK ACTIVITY Teacher’s interactive feedback, correction, explicit explanation, evaluation See also Willis & Willis 2007

36. Conclusion: reorienting future research and development Tasks can provide a valuable workspace including: a) a demand which focuses, helps understand the language and its use b) a context motivating future practice. Choice of task affects students’ language and discourse • Tasks provide opportunities for using and re-using the language: • as students continue working, or check or prepare to report back; • as teacher highlights relevant language; • as students report back to the teacher and whole class; • as teacher monitors, corrects and provides practice • as students check and write up their conclusions; • as they do another similar task. BUT…. • If TBLT is to work, we need research that is responsive to classroom needs: • Materials, and carefully designed programmes • Relevant explorations of the use of tasks in classrooms • Institutional support to enable teachers to explore the possibilities

37. Thank you for your attention today m.bygate@lancaster.ac.uk

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