Women’s Employment

1. Women’s Employment The Indian Scenario

2. Poverty has a woman’s face… The International Labour Organisation says… Women represent • 50% of the population • 30% of the labour force • Perform 60% of all working hours • Receive 10% of the world’s income • Own less than 1% of the world’s property

3. Per Capita Income and Distribution of Labour Force Source: Human Development Report 1994

4. Composition of GDP and Labour Force Source: World Development Report 1997

5. Women’s Employment • Women undertaking productive work where there is economic participation of women in the labour market. • Adult females in a given population that work for pay, and the conditions under which they work

6. Economic participation? • Production of goods and services accounted in the national income statistics • Female work participation rate low (26% for women vs. 52% for men) • Women have always been at work, only the definitions of work and work plan have not been realistic to include their contribution to the economy and society.

7. Some Definitions Work Force Participation Rate is the proportion of ‘working’ population to total population. Labour force excludes children below the age of 15 and old people above the age of 60. Worker is one gainfully employed or one working for a livelihood – excluding unpaid family workers.

8. Economic necessity Economic independence Qualified to work Sense of achievement Pastime Service to society Status symbol Power and prestige Why do women ‘work’?

9. Economic Need to work Indian women by and large undertake ‘productive work’ only under economic compulsion. This is the reason for high female participation rates for economically under privileged communities. Upper class women usually were limited to their homes.

10. Rural vs. Urban Work participation rate is higher among • rural women (27%) than the • urban women (10%) Female Workers – 90:10 in favour of rural areas (male - 80:20)

11. Main vs. Marginal Workers Women go in for temporary and stand-by jobs because of hesitancy to employ women in regular jobs and providing them with good working conditions. The main workers are those who ‘work’ for major part of the year. Female main workers constitute 14.65% of the population (males - 50.54%). Female marginal workers constitute 6.26% of the population (males - 0.98%).

12. Organised vs. Unorganised Sector Most of the women are also found to be employed in agricultural activities and in the unorganised sector – i.e. The organised sector like banks, offices, educational institutions show low levels of female participation in the workforce. The employment of women is high in unorganised sector such as part time helpers in households, construction sector, tanneries (setting, parting & drying), match and beedi industries.

13. Informal Sector – an important source of work for women • 90% of the working women are involved in the informal sector and not included in the official statistics. (The World Bank, 1991 – an estimate) • Undocumented, disguised wage work – unskilled, low paying and do not provide benefits to the worker

14. Some points to consider… • Difficulties in making generalisations in the Indian society – diversity in regions/religions/social and economic setup • Hierarchical Society – caste or caste-like group • Patriarchal double-standards • Sexual discrimination/harassment • Women’s unemployment rates similar to men’s – 2% in rural areas and 5% in urban areas (NSSO, 1994)

15. Age • Female workers relatively young • As age increases, the ratio of female to male workers decreases

16. Agricultural Sector • Vast majority of Indians work in Agriculture • 55% of the female agricultural workers (vs. 30% of the men) are labourers - not cultivators.

17. Service Sector Occupations such as government, teaching, religious activities, entertainment, social work involve 8% of all female main workers.

18. Percent Distribution of Main Workers by Category: 1991

19. Technology Negative Impact on women’s employment opportunities especially in rural areas: • Harvesting • Wheat grinding • Small scale industries – match industry • Weaving

20. Employment & Economic Independence Even if a woman is employed, she may not have control over the money she earns. Women are expected to devote all their time, energy and earnings to the family. Many Indian women seek their husband’s permission when they wish to purchase something for themselves.

21. Education and Work Only 40% of the women (men – 64%) are literate, majority having only a primary education or less. Higher levels of education for women do not directly translate into higher proportions of main workers.

22. Distinct Work Experiences in Different Areas of the Country • Larger rural populations have larger female employment rates • Exceptions – Punjab and Haryana (richer/cultural practices)

23. Conclusion The place of women in the workforce varies according to societal • Structure • Needs • Customs • Attitudes