Education Policy and Social Differentiation:

1. Education Policy and Social Differentiation: The Racial/Ethnic and Gender Analysis

2. What would you tell your daughter?

3. Let Baby Tells You --Effective parent-child communication (Learning the skills) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w93uRX9hcqM&NR=1

4. How to behave on a bus? Working class code: Mom: "Hold onto the strap when the bus starts." Child: "Why?" Mom: "Because I said so!" Child: "Why?" Mom: "Sit down and do as you're told." Middle class code: Mom: "Hold onto the strap when the bus starts." Child: "Why?" Mom: "Because when the bus starts, you might fall down." Child: "Why?" Mom: "The bus jerks when it starts, and you might trip." Child: "Why?" Mom: "Sit down and do as you're told."

6. Two Parenting Strategies • Concerted cultivation • Middle-class parents look for opportunities to develop children’s talents and inclinations • Organized activities that give children skills – conversational, leadership, and intellectual • Encourage children to ask questions and negotiate • They are more likely to be argumentative, complain of boredom, demand attention • As a result, middle-class children gain a sense of being entitled to have adults’ focus attention

7. Overemphasis on children’s perceived needs: “Today, the center of the middle-class home is the calendar … Month after month, children are busy participating in sports, music, scouts, and playgroups. And, before and after going to work, their parents are busy getting them to and from these activities.”

8. Overemphasis, cont’d “[f]amily life, …, is frequently frenetic Parents, especially mothers, must reconcile conflicting priorities, juggling events whose deadlines are much tighter than the deadlines connected to serving meals or getting children ready for bed … At times, everyone in the middle-class families seemed exhausted.”

9. Two Parenting Strategies, cont’d 2. Accomplishment of natural growth • Parents do not feel responsible to involve intensely in children’s lives • Maintain strict boundaries between the world of adults and the world of children • No time or resources to organize activities for children • Children learn to entertain themselves, create games, and are rarely bored or exhausted • Daily interaction with kins

10. Working class family: “Working-class and poor children, despite tremendous economic strain, often have more “childlike” lives, with autonomy from adults and control over their extended leisure time.” “…family members spent more time together in shared space … Working-class and poor children also developed very close ties with their cousins and other extended family members.”

11. Home Advantage • Home-school relationship • Social class differences in cultural resources: • Educational competence • communication skills • occupational status of parents and teachers • Dimension of work: interconnections between work and home

12. Parent-Teacher communications “The parent-teacher interactions at Prescott [middle-class school] were often longer, more causal, and included more purely social exchanges… At Colton [working-class school] conversations between parents and teachers were shorter, more explicitly focused on school matters and more stilted. Prescott teachers [said]: [The parents] will be very friendly because they’re people who … because of their status in the world are used to making conversation and being polite and being open. All those sorts of things make them successful people. Lareau, Home Advantage

13. Differential Habitus by Race/Ethnicity? • Definition of habitus: …. • “The habitus, the durably installed generative principle of regulated improvisation, produces practices which tend to reproduce the regularities immanent in the objective conditions to the production of their generative principle, while adjusting to the demands inscribed as objective potentialities in the situation, as defined by the cognitive and motivating structures making up the habitus.” (1977, P.78) • Annette Lareau argues that race is not as relevant as social class

14. Differential Habitus by Gender? • Dumais SA. 2002. Cultural capital, gender, and school success: the role of habitus. Sociology of Education 75(1):44–68

15. Different Ethnicities (White) France Russia UK

16. Different Ethnicities (Black) Dominican Republic Kenya Jamaica

17. Different Ethnicities (Hispanics) Mexico Brazil Cuba

18. Different Ethnicities (Asian) Japan China Korea

19. Race & Ethnicity – Are they distinct? Roger Brubaker (2009)

20. Ethnic Stratification • Hierarchical ordering of racial/ethnic groups in society • It is highly associated with class stratification but cannot be explained away by social class backgrounds

21. The Black-White Gap • Even when socioeconomic status is statistically controlled, • A sizeable black/white gap in cognitive test scores, grades, college graduation • Black students do less homework and are rated by teachers as being less attentive, not working as hard for good grades, and more disruptive • B-W gap exists among infants between 9 & 15 months Downey (2008)

22. Ethnic Stratification in the labor market • Neoclassical economic perspective (G. Becker) • Employers’ taste • Marxist perspective (M. Reich) • Blacks are scapegoats for problems of capitalism • Effect: weakens workers’ bargaining power, and employers are able to keep wages low • Racism helps to legitimize inequality, alienation, and powerlessness. White workers are able participate in another group’s oppression which compensate for their misery. This is solace for an unsatisfactory life.

23. E. Bonacich on Ethnic Stratification • Split Labor Market • Price differs for the same kind of work by two groups of workers, e.g., B & W, men and women • Ethnic formation by (a) entry of new nationalities, and (b) resources have historically been roughly correlated with color around the world • Ethnic structure: three classes of people • Business class / employer • Higher paid labor • Cheaper labor

24. E. Bonacich, cont’d • Problem with the Marxist view • assumes that racial/ethnic differences are enough to prompt racial antagonism and result in price differential. • Initial price of labor was determined by • Resources (economic, information, political) • Motives (supplement income or improve position in homeland)

25. E. Bonacich, cont’d • Victory of higher paid labor through • Exclusion • 1960s, Australian White workers prevented importing labor from India, China, Japan and the Pacific Islands • Around 1900, the Gentleman’s Agreement, preventing further immigration of Japanese Labor into the U.S. • Caste arrangement • Cheaper labor cannot be excluded, e.g., indigenous people, slaves • Use laws, customs, and beliefs to prevent undercutting • Example: 1869 Discovery of diamond. White workers came, followed by capitalists. White workers unionized to ensure exclusive supremacy in the labor market • Capitalists supported a liberal ideology of open competition for ethnic minorities

26. Historical & Legal Contexts of Ethnic Inequality in Education in the U.S. • The Jim Crow laws (1876-1965) mandated racial segregation in all public facilities, public places (e.g., restrooms, restaurants and drinking fountains), and public transportation • Supreme Court case Plessy v Ferguson of 1896: • H. Plessy (7/8 Caucasian and 1/8 African blood) paid for a 1st class seat on a white coach but was forced to leave and imprisoned • The rule “separate but equal” was upheld • Public schools were racially segregated by law

27. Historical & Legal Contexts, cont’d • Supreme Court case Brown v Board of Education (1954) • Linder Brown, a third grader, had to walk six blocks to her school bus stop to ride to her segregated black school that was one mile away, while a white school was seven blocks from her house • Got help from civil rights organization, NAACP • Unanimous decision that rejected the previous ruling of Plessy v Ferguson

28. Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does... Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of the law, for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the negro group. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to [retard] the educational and mental development of negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits they would receive in a racial[ly] integrated school system... We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. … James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (2001)

29. The Supreme court’s rule was based on • violation of fundamental freedom • effects of schooling • Desegregation began: Enforcement Decree 1955 required federal district courts to be used to end segregation of public schools • Civil Rights Act (1964) passed by Congress to speed up desegregation • Title VI: prohibit distribution of federal funds to schools with racially discriminatory programs

30. The Coleman Report (1966) • 1964 Civil Rights Act authorized the Commissioner of Education to conduct a survey which would examine "the lack of availability of equal educational opportunities for individuals by reason of race, color, religion, or national origin in public educational institutions at all levels in the United States."

31. The Coleman Report, cont’d • Coleman defined the concept of equality of educational opportunity in terms of school effect, i.e., equality of results given the same individual inputs • Students of the same background and ability should have the same educational results • If not, one needs to trace sources of unequal inputs, such as per-pupil expenditure, teacher quality, class size, provision of facilities, etc.

32. What are the factors that affect students outcomes? Inputs (resources) Outputs (results) School

33. The Coleman Report, cont’d • Major findings • Most students studied in segregated school • Pronounced regional disparities • Blacks scored substantially lower than Whites and the gap widened with grade • Relative importance of inputs: • students' socioeconomic background • teacher quality • facilities and curriculum • Minorities who attended White schools had higher test scores than those who attended all-minority schools  busing, forced integration

34. Desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas

35. John Ogbu’s Explanation of Ethnic Inequality in Schooling • Black - White differences cannot be explained by social class differences • less class variation within Blacks as a group • within social class, significant B-W inequality in performance • Cultural Ecological Theory: • “ecology” refers to the setting, environment, or world of minorities (structural factors) • “cultural” refers to the way minorities see their world and behave in it

36. Ogbu, cont’d • Two major parts: • White treatment/ the System • Instrumental discrimination (employment & wages) • Relational discrimination (residential segregation) • Symbolic discrimination (language and culture)

38. Ogbu (cont’d) • Two major parts: • White treatment/ the system • Instrumental discrimination (employment & wages) • Relational discrimination (residential segregation) • Symbolic discrimination (language and culture) • Black response/ collective solution • For instrumental discrimination, they develop folk theory of how they can succeed • For relational discrimination, they become mistrustful of Whites and their institutions • For symbolic discrimination, they may develop an oppositional cultural and language frame of reference

40. The Burden of “Acting White” “School learning is therefore consciously or unconsciously perceived as a subtractive process: a minority who learns successfully in school or who follows the standard practices of the school is perceived as becoming acculturated into the white American cultural frame of reference at the expense of the minorities’ culturalframe of reference and collective welfare.” Fordham & Ogbu (1986)

42. Types of Minorities • Voluntary / Immigrant minorities • Chinese, Cubans, Japanese, Koreans, Filipinos, West Indies • Involuntary / Caste-like minorities • Black Americans, Native Hawaiians, American Indians, Mexican Americans

43. Types of Minorities (cont’d) • Voluntary / Immigrant minorities • chose to move to the U.S. • positive dual framework of reference • accommodation without assimilation • Pro-school attitudes & behaviors • Involuntary / Castelike minorities • through slavery, conquest, colonization • dual status-mobility frame of reference • oppositional cultural framework of reference • Anti-school attitudes & behaviors

44. Jeremiah Wright - Hate speech http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdJB-qkfUHc&feature=related

45. Features of Ogbu’s Classification • The classification is not determined by race • Koreans in the U.S. and in Japan • Maya Indians in the U.S. and Mexico • Black Americans in Ghana and the U.S. • Voluntary and involuntary minorities are ideal types and represent two ends of a continuum • Refugees, migrant/guest workers, undocumented workers are closer to involuntary minorities • Descendants or later generations are closer to voluntary minorities

46. Testing the Oppositional Culture Hypothesis • Ainsworth-Darnell & Downey (1998) • Farkas, Lleras & Maczuga (2002) found oppositional culture (“my friends make fun of people who do well”) in high poverty schools. • Tyson (2003) found that “acting white” taunts have more to do with speech, dress, and style than academic effort • Horvat & Lewis (2003) found that the burden of “acting white” did not appear to be important in peer relationships

47. Ainsworth-Darnell & Downey (1998) • Perception of the “system”: Black students are significantly more likely than white students to report that education is important to getting a job later on and to have higher occupational expectations than white students. • Perception of the “system”: Black students are significantly more likely than their white counterparts to report good treatment by teachers, less likely to agree that it is OK to break rules, and more likely to report a feeling of satisfaction from doing what they are supposed to do in class

48. Ainsworth-Darnell (cont’d) • “Community forces”: relative to white students, African American students are especially popular when they are also seen as very good students • However, Black students‘ cultural skills (homework, effort, disruption, in trouble) are consistent with the oppositional culture model • These cultural skills, not attitudes, explain the B-W achievement gap, after SES is controlled

49. Testing the Oppositional Culture Hypothesis • Ainsworth-Darnell & Downey (1998) • Farkas, Lleras & Maczuga (2002) found oppositional culture (“my friends make fun of people who do well”) in high poverty schools. • Tyson (2003) found that “acting white” taunts have more to do with speech, dress, and style than academic effort • Horvat & Lewis (2003) found that the burden of “acting white” did not appear to be important in peer relationships

50. Lingering Questions • What else explains the low performance of Black students when SES is statistically controlled? • Is the residual unmeasured SES, or unmeasured environmental differences? • What is the role of the school?