Anatomy and Physiology

1. Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 14

2. Introduction • The lymphatic system is comprised of a network of vessels, cells, organs, and glands that produce and transport body fluids. • Lymphatic vessels collect and carry away excess fluid from interstitial spaces • The organs of the lymphatic system help defend against disease. • Lymphatic capillaries are tiny, closed-ended tubes that extend into interstitial spaces. • They receive fluid through their thin walls and once inside, tissue fluid is called lymph. • The walls of lymphatic vessels are like veins but with thinner walls. • Larger lymphatic vessels pass through lymph nodes and merge to form lymphatic trunks.

5. Lymphatic Trunks and Collecting Ducts • The lymphatic trunks drain lymph from the body and are named for the regions they drain. • These trunks join one of two collecting ducts - either the thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct. • The fluid is eventually returned to the subclavian vein.

6. Lymph Fluid • Lymph is made up of water and dissolved substances that leave blood capillaries by filtration and diffusion. • Most of the small molecules are returned to the capillaries by diffusion. • Lymph then transports small foreign particles (bacteria, viruses, etc.) to lymph nodes. • Forces that move blood in veins are the forces that propel lymph through lymphatic vessels.

7. Lymph Nodes • Lymph nodes are located along lymphatic pathways. • They are bean-shaped, with two important parts: • The hilum – area where blood vessels and nerves join a node • The medulla – inner area where macrophages and T-cells are. • They are covered with connective tissue that extends inside the node and divides it into nodules and spaces called sinuses. • These contain both lymphocytes and macrophages which clean the lymph as it flows through the node. • Lymph nodes are centers of lymphocyte production, which function in immune surveillance. • The macrophages and lymphocytes within lymph nodes filter lymph and remove bacteria and cellular debris before lymph is returned to the blood. • The lymph nodes generally occur in chains along the parts of the larger lymphatic vessels.

11. Thymus • The thymus is a soft, bi-lobed organ located behind the sternum • It shrinks in size during the lifetime (large in children, microscopic in the elderly). • The thymus gland is divided into lobules, which are small clusters of thymus cells. • Lobules contain lymphocytes, some of which mature into T lymphocytes (T cells) that leave the thymus to provide immunity. • The thymus secretes the hormone thymosin, which influences the maturation of T lymphocytes once they leave the thymus.

14. Spleen • The spleen lies in the upper left abdominal cavity and is the body’s largest lymphatic organ. • The spleen resembles a large lymph node except that it contains blood instead of lymph. • Inside the spleen lies white pulp (containing many lymphocytes) and red pulp (containing red blood cells, macrophages, and lymphocytes). • The spleen filters the blood and removes damaged blood cells and bacteria.

16. Body Defenses Against Infection • Disease-causing agents, also called pathogens, can produce infections within the body. • The body has two lines of defense against pathogens: • Nonspecific defenses that guard against any pathogen • Specific defenses (immunity) that mount a response against a very specific target. • Specific defenses are carried out by lymphocytes that recognize a specific invader. • Nonspecific and specific defenses work together to protect the body against infection.

17. Innate (Nonspecific) Defenses • Species Resistance • A species is resistant to diseases that affect other species because it has a unique environment. • Pathogens from dogs tend not to infect humans. • Doesn’t always work – H5N1 (Bird Flu) • Mechanical Barriers • The unbroken skin and mucous membranes of the body create mechanical barriers that prevent the entry of certain pathogens. • Mechanical barriers represent the body’s first line of defense. • Chemical Barriers • Chemical barriers, such as the highly acidic and caustic environment of the stomach. • Interferons are produced by cells when they are infected with viruses and induce nearby cells to produce antiviral enzymes that protect them from infection.

18. Fever • Fever offers powerful protection against infection by interfering with the proper conditions that promote bacterial growth. • During fever, the amount of iron in the blood is reduced • Fewer nutrients are available to support the growth of pathogens. • Phagocytic cells attack with greater vigor when the temperature rises. • Inflammation • Inflammation, a tissue response to a pathogen, is characterized by redness, swelling, heat, and pain. • Major actions that occur during an inflammatory response include: • Dilation of blood vessels • Increase of blood volume in affected areas • Invasion of white blood cells into the affected area • Appearance of fibroblasts and their production of a sac around the area.

19. Adaptive (Specific) Defenses or Immunity • The response mounted by the body against specific, recognized foreign molecules. • Antigens • Before birth, the body makes an inventory of "self" proteins and other large molecules. • Antigens are generally larger molecules that elicit an immune response. • Lymphocyte Origins • During fetal development, red bone marrow releases lymphocytes into circulation • 70-80% become T lymphocytes (T cells) • The remainder become B lymphocytes (B cells). • Undifferentiated lymphocytes that reach the thymus become T cells and B cells are thought to mature in the bone marrow. • Both B and T cells reside in lymphatic organs.

21. Lymphocyte Functions • T cells attack foreign, antigen-bearing cells, such as bacteria, by direct cell-to-cell contact, providing cell-mediated immunity. • T cells also secrete cytokines that enhance cellular response to antigens. • T cells may also secrete toxins that kill target cells • Compliment Proteins puncture bacterial cells • They can also produce growth-inhibiting factors or interferon to interfere with viruses and tumor cells. • B cells attack pathogens by differentiating into plasma cells that secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins).

22. There are three main types of T-Cells. • Helper T-Cells are cells that help activate B-cells to produce antibodies. • They must come in contact with a cell that has already encountered the antigen. • Macrophages contain Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) proteins that act as both ID badges AND antigen presenting proteins. • If a Helper T-Cell comes in contact with a macrophage which is presenting an antigen, it becomes activated. • Once activated, the Helper T-Cell then tells other B-cells to produce antibodies to the antigen. • Cytotoxic T cells monitor the body's cells, recognizing and eliminating tumor cells and virus-infected cells. • Cytotoxic T cells become activated when a antigen binds to its receptors. • Memory T cells provide a no-delay response to any future exposure to the same antigen.

24. B Cells and the Humoral Immune Response • Most B cells need helper T cells for activation. • The helper T cell releases cytokines that activate the B cell so that it can divide and form a clone. • B cells may become activated and produce a clone of cells when its antigen receptor encounters its matching antigen. • Some of the B cells become plasma cells, producing and secreting antibodies. • Like T cells, some of the B cells become memory cells to respond to future encounters with the antigen.

26. Types of Antibodies • There are five major types of antibodies (immunoglobulins) that constitute the gamma globulin fraction of the plasma. • IgG is in tissue fluid and plasma and defends against bacterial cells, viruses, and toxins and activates complement. • IgA is in exocrine gland secretions (breast milk, saliva, tears) and defends against bacteria and viruses. • IgM is found in plasma and activates complement and reacts with blood cells during transfusions. • IgD is found on the surface of most B lymphocytes and functions in B cell activation. • IgE is found in exocrine gland secretions and promotes allergic reactions

27. Antibody Actions • Antibodies can react to antigens in three ways: • Direct attack • Direct attack methods include agglutination, precipitation, and neutralization of antigens. • Activation of complement • This can produce inflammation or lysis in target cells or antigens. • Stimulation of changes in areas that help prevent the spread of the pathogens.

29. Immune Responses • When B or T cells become activated the first time, their actions constitute a primary immune response • This is when the cells acquire information about the pathogen and the antigens it contains. • After this, some cells remain as memory cells. • If the same antigen is encountered again, more numerous memory cells can mount a more rapid response, known as the secondary immune response. • The ability to produce a secondary immune response may be long-lasting. • Immunity is gained in an Active or Passive manner. • Active immunity involves actual infection with pathogen. • Allows body to produce its own antibodies. • Passive immunity involves injection of actual antibodies. • Short lived

31. Allergic Reactions • Allergic reactions to allergens are excessive immune responses that may lead to tissue damage. • Delayed-reaction allergy results from repeated exposure to substances that cause inflammatory reactions in the skin. • Immediate-reaction allergy is an inherited ability to overproduce IgE. • During allergic reactions, mast cells release histamine and leukotrienes, producing a variety of effects. • Allergy mediators sometimes flood the body, resulting in anaphylactic shock, a severe form of immediate reaction allergy.

32. HIV • HIV virus infects macrophages through special receptors on the cell surface • Once virus is inside cell, it replicates and produces thousands of copies of itself. • It then begins infecting the Helper T-Cells and they begin to die at a rapid rate. • This affects B-Cell activation and thus antibody production. • Eventually HIV begins binding to cytotoxic T-cells • This lowers the body’s ability to patrol itself and prevent bacterial infections and cancers.

33. The End