Nervous System s

1. Nervous Systems

2. Big Questions • How do nervous systems help animals coordinate and control their physiology? • Why are nervous systems an “animals only” phenomenon?

3. Why do animals need a nervous system? • What characteristics do animals need in a nervous system? • fast • accurate • reset quickly Remember…think aboutthe bunny… Poor bunny!

4. Overview of information processing by nervous systems Sensory input Integration Sensor Motor output Effector Peripheral nervoussystem (PNS) Central nervoussystem (CNS)

5. Nervous system cells • Neuron • a nerve cell signal direction dendrites • Structure fits function • many entry points for signal • one path out • transmits signal cellbody axon signal direction synaptic terminal myelin sheath dendrite  cell body  axon synapse

6. Fun facts about neurons • Most specialized cell in animals • Longest cell • blue whale neuron • 10-30 meters • giraffe axon • 5 meters • human neuron • 1-2 meters Nervous system allows for 1 millisecond response time

7. Transmission of a signal • Think dominoes! • start the signal • knock down line of dominoes by tipping 1st one  trigger the signal • propagate the signal • do dominoes move down the line?  no, just a wave through them! • re-set the system • before you can do it again, have to set up dominoes again  reset the axon

8. Transmission of a nerve signal • Neuron has similar system • protein channels are set up • once first one is opened, the rest openin succession • all or nothing response • a “wave” action travels along neuron • have to re-set channels so neuron can react again

9. Cells: surrounded by charged ions Na+ Na+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ Cl- Cl- Cl- aa- aa- K+ aa- Cl- aa- aa- aa- K+ Cl- Cl- • Cells live in a sea of charged ions • anions (negative) • more concentrated within the cell • Cl-, charged amino acids (aa-) • cations (positive) • more concentrated in the extracellular fluid • Na+ channel leaks K+ K+ + – K+

10. Cells have voltage! + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – • Opposite charges on opposite sides of cell membrane • membrane is polarized • negative inside; positive outside • charge gradient • stored energy (like a battery)

11. Measuring cell voltage unstimulated neuron = resting potential of -70mV

12. How does a nerve impulse travel? + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – Na+ • Stimulus: nerve is stimulated • reaches threshold potential • open Na+ channels in cell membrane • Na+ ions diffuse into cell • charges reverse at that point on neuron • positive inside; negative outside • cell becomes depolarized The 1stdomino goesdown!

13. How does a nerve impulse travel? Gate + + – + channel closed channel open + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – Na+ wave  • Wave: nerve impulse travels down neuron • change in charge opens next Na+ gates down the line • “voltage-gated” channels • Na+ ions continue to diffuse into cell • “wave” moves down neuron = action potential The restof thedominoes fall!

14. How does a nerve impulse travel? K+ + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – Na+ wave  • Re-set: 2nd wave travels down neuron • K+ channels open • K+ channels open up more slowly than Na+ channels • K+ ions diffuse out of cell • charges reverse back at that point • negative inside; positive outside Setdominoesback upquickly!

15. How does a nerve impulse travel? K+ + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – Na+ wave  • Combined waves travel down neuron • wave of opening ion channels moves down neuron • signal moves in one direction      • flow of K+ out of cell stops activation of Na+ channels in wrong direction Readyfornext time!

16. How does a nerve impulse travel? K+ + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – Na+ wave  • Action potential propagates • wave = nerve impulse, oraction potential • brain  finger tips in milliseconds! In theblink ofan eye!

17. Voltage-gated channels K+ + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – Na+ wave  • Ion channels open & close in response to changes in charge across membrane • Na+ channels open quickly in response to depolarization & close slowly • K+ channels open slowly in response to depolarization & close slowly Structure& function!

18. How does the nerve re-set itself? Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ Na+ K+ Na+ K+ Na+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – K+ Na+ Na+ K+ Na+ K+ Na+ K+ Na+ K+ K+ Na+ K+ K+ K+ Na+ wave  • After firing a neuron has to re-set itself • Na+ needs to move back out • K+ needs to move back in • both are moving against concentration gradients • need a pump!! A lot ofwork todo here!

19. How does the nerve re-set itself? • Sodium-Potassium pump • active transport protein in membrane • requires ATP • 3 Na+ pumped out • 2 K+ pumped in • re-sets chargeacross membrane ATP That’s a lot of ATP ! Feed me somesugar quick!

20. Neuron is ready to fire again Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ K+ K+ K+ aa- aa- K+ aa- K+ aa- aa- aa- K+ K+ K+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ resting potential

21. Action potential graph • Resting potential • Stimulus reaches threshold potential • DepolarizationNa+ channels open; K+ channels closed • Na+ channels close; K+ channels open • Repolarizationreset charge gradient • UndershootK+ channels close slowly 40 mV 4 30 mV 20 mV Depolarization Na+ flows in Repolarization K+flows out 10 mV 0 mV –10 mV 3 5 Membrane potential –20 mV –30 mV –40 mV Hyperpolarization (undershoot) Threshold –50 mV –60 mV 2 –70 mV 1 6 Resting Resting potential –80 mV

22. Myelin sheath • Axon coated with Schwann cells • insulates axon • speeds signal • signal hops from node to node • saltatory conduction • 150 m/sec vs. 5 m/sec(330 mph vs. 11 mph) signal direction myelinsheath

23. action potential saltatory conduction Na+ myelin + – axon + + + – + Na+ • Multiple Sclerosis • immune system (T cells) attack myelin sheath • loss of signal

24. Synapse What happens at the end of the axon? Impulse has to jump the synapse! • junction between neurons • has to jump quickly from one cell to next How does the wavejump the gap?

25. Chemical synapse • Events at synapse • action potential depolarizes membrane • opens Ca++ channels • neurotransmitter vesicles fuse with membrane • release neurotransmitter to synapse  diffusion • neurotransmitter binds with protein receptor • ion-gated channels open • neurotransmitter degraded or reabsorbed axon terminal action potential synaptic vesicles synapse Ca++ neurotransmitteracetylcholine (ACh) receptor protein muscle cell (fiber) We switched… from an electrical signal to a chemical signal

26. Synaptic terminals on the cell body of a postsynaptic neuron (colorized SEM) Postsynapticneuron Synapticterminalof presynapticneurons 5 µm

27. Nerve impulse in next neuron Na+ Na+ ACh binding site ion channel + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – + + – – K+ Na+ K+ Na+ K+ • Post-synaptic neuron • triggers nerve impulse in next nerve cell • chemical signal opens ion-gated channels • Na+ diffuses into cell • K+ diffuses out of cell • switch back to voltage-gated channel Here wego again!

28. Summation of postsynaptic potentials Terminal branch of presynaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron E1 E1 E1 E1 E2 I Axonhillock Actionpotential Actionpotential Threshold of axon of postsynaptic neuron 0 Restingpotential Membrane potential (mV) –70 E1 E1 + E2 E1 E1 E1 E1 I E1 + I (c) Spatial summation (d) Spatial summationof EPSP and IPSP (a) Subthreshold, nosummation (b) Temporal summation

29. Neurotransmitters • Acetylcholine • transmit signal to skeletal muscle • Epinephrine (adrenaline) & norepinephrine • fight-or-flight response • Dopamine • widespread in brain • affects sleep, mood, attention & learning • lack of dopamine in brain associated with Parkinson’s disease • excessive dopamine linked to schizophrenia • Serotonin • widespread in brain • affects sleep, mood, attention & learning

30. Neurotransmitters • Weak point of nervous system • any substance that affects neurotransmitters or mimics them affects nerve function • gases: nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide • mood altering drugs: • stimulants • amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine • depressants • quaaludes, barbiturates • hallucinogenic drugs: LSD, peyote • SSRIs: Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil • poisons Pity the Test Mice

31. Acetylcholinesterase • Enzyme which breaks downacetylcholine neurotransmitter • acetylcholinesterase inhibitors = neurotoxins • snake venom, sarin, insecticides neurotoxin in green active site in red snake toxin blockingacetylcholinesterase active site acetylcholinesterase

32. Neurotoxins Many Animal toxins disrupt the functioning of nervous system cell signaling pathways. Many drugs have a similar mode of action (just not deadly). This disruption has many effects in the body.

33. Questions to ponder… • Why are axons so long? • Why have synapses at all? • How do “mind altering drugs” work? • caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, marijuana… • Do plants have a nervous system? • Do they need one?

34. Organization of some nervous systems Eyespot Brain Brain Radialnerve Nerve cord Ventral nervecord Nervering Transversenerve Nerve net Segmentalganglion (a) Hydra (cnidarian) (b) Sea star (echinoderm) (c) Planarian (flatworm) (d) Leech (annelid) Brain Brain Ganglia Anteriornerve ring Ventral nervecord Sensoryganglion Spinalcord (dorsalnerve cord) Brain Longitudinalnerve cords Ganglia Segmentalganglia (e) Insect (arthropod) (h) Salamander (chordate) (g) Squid (mollusc) (f) Chiton (mollusc)

35. The vertebrate nervous system Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Brain Cranial nerves Spinal cord Ganglia outside CNS Spinal nerves

36. Functional hierarchy of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system Peripheral nervous system Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division Enteric division

37. The parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system Parasympathetic division Sympathetic division Action on target organs: Action on target organs: Dilates pupil of eye Constricts pupil of eye Location of preganglionic neurons: brainstem and sacral segments of spinal cord Location of preganglionic neurons: thoracic and lumbar segments of spinal cord Inhibits salivary gland secretion Stimulates salivary gland secretion Sympathetic ganglia Neurotransmitter released by preganglionic neurons: acetylcholine Constricts bronchi in lungs Relaxes bronchi in lungs Neurotransmitter released by preganglionic neurons: acetylcholine Cervical Accelerates heart Slows heart Inhibits activity of stomach and intestines Thoracic Stimulates activity of stomach and intestines Location of postganglionic neurons: in ganglia close to or within target organs Location of postganglionic neurons: some in ganglia close to target organs; others in a chain of ganglia near spinal cord Inhibits activity of pancreas Stimulates activity of pancreas Stimulates glucose release from liver; inhibits gallbladder Stimulates gallbladder Lumbar Neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons: acetylcholine Neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons: norepinephrine Stimulates adrenal medulla Promotes emptying of bladder Inhibits emptying of bladder Promotes erection of genitalia Promotes ejaculation and vaginal contractions Sacral Synapse

38. Development of the human brain Embryonic brain regions Brain structures present in adult Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres; includes cerebral cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Telencephalon Forebrain Diencephalon Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus) Mesencephalon Midbrain Midbrain (part of brainstem) Metencephalon Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum Hindbrain Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem) Myelencephalon Diencephalon: Cerebral hemisphere Hypothalamus Mesencephalon Thalamus Metencephalon Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) Diencephalon Midbrain Hindbrain Myelencephalon Brainstem: Midbrain Pons Spinal cord Pituitary gland Forebrain Medulla oblongata Telencephalon Cerebellum Spinal cord Central canal (a) Embryo at one month (b) Embryo at five weeks (c) Adult

39. Ventricles, gray matter, and white matter Gray matter White matter Ventricles

40. Medulla, Pons and Midbrain

41. The Cerebellum

42. The Diencephalon

43. The Cerebrum

44. The human cerebrum viewed from the rear Right cerebral hemisphere Left cerebral hemisphere Corpus callosum Basal nuclei Neocortex

45. The human cerebral cortex Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Motor cortex Somatosensory cortex Somatosensory association area Speech Frontal association area Taste Reading Speech Hearing Visual association area Smell Auditory association area Vision Temporal lobe Occipital lobe

46. Body representations in the primary motor and primary somatosensory cortices Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Elbow Shoulder Head Knee Upper arm Trunk Forearm Neck Trunk Hip Leg Wrist Elbow Hip Hand Forearm Fingers Hand Fingers Thumb Thumb Neck Eye Brow Nose Eye Face Genitalia Lips Face Toes TeethGumsJaw Lips Jaw Tongue Tongue Pharynx Primarymotor cortex Primarysomatosensory cortex Abdominalorgans

47. Mapping language areas in the cerebral cortex Max Hearing words Seeing words Min Generating words Speaking words

48. fMRI Technology Recently, Functional MRI imaging has been used to view real time brain activity:

49. Microscopic signs of Alzheimer’s disease 20 m Senile plaque Neurofibrillary tangle

50. Ponder this…Any Questions??