Attitudes and Persuasion

1. Attitudes and Persuasion Michael J. Kalsher MGMT 4460/6940 Summer 2014

2. Chapter Objectives • It’s important for consumer researchers to understand the nature and power of attitudes. • Attitudes are more complex than they first appear. • We form attitudes in several ways. • A need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components motivates us to alter one or more of them. • We use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude toward a product or brand.

3. Chapter Objectives (continued) • The communications model identifies several important components for marketers when they try to change consumers’ attitudes toward products and services. • The consumer who processes such a message is not necessarily the passive receiver of information marketers once believed him to be. • Several factors influence a message source’s effectiveness. • The way a marketer structures his message determines how persuasive it will be. • Audience characteristics help to determine whether the nature of the source or the message itself will be relatively more effective.

4. Objective 1 – • It’s important for consumer researchers to understand the nature and power of attitudes.

5. The Power of Attitudes • Attitude • A lasting, general evaluation of people, objects, advertisements, or issues • Attitude object (AO) • anything toward which one has an attitude • can help to determine preferences and actions

6. Functional Theory of Attitudes Marketers should emphasize the “dominant” function (benefits) a product serves for consumers! UTILITARIAN FUNCTION: Relates to rewards and punishments VALUE-EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION: Expresses consumer’s values or self-concept EGO-DEFENSIVE FUNCTION: Protect ourselves from external threats or internal feelings KNOWLEDGE FUNCTION: Need for order, structure, or meaning

7. ABC Model of Attitudes • An attitude has three components • Affect: • the way a consumer feels about an attitude object • Behavior: • person’s intentions to do something with regard to an attitude object • Cognition: • beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object • Hierarchy of Effects • Relative impact/importance of attitude components depends on a consumer’s motivation toward an attitude object.

8. Objective 2 – • Attitudes are more complex than they first appear.

9. Objective 3 – Attitude Commitment • We form attitudes in several ways INTERNALIZATION Highest level: deep-seeded attitudes become part of consumer’s value system IDENTIFICATION Mid-level: attitudes formed in order to conform to another person or group COMPLIANCE Lowest level: consumer forms attitude because it gains rewards or avoids punishments Degree of commitment is related to level of involvement with the attitude object

10. Objective 4 – Cognitive Consistency • A need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. • We value/seek harmony among thoughts, feelings, and behaviors • We will change components to make them consistent • Explains why evaluations of products change after purchase. • Relates to the theory of cognitivedissonance – we take action to resolve dissonance when our attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent

11. Self-Perception Theory We use observations of our own behavior to determine what our attitudes are. FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR TECHNIQUE Consumer is more likely to comply with a request if he has first agreed to comply with a smaller request LOW-BALL TECHNIQUE Person is asked for a small favor and is informed after agreeing to it that it will be very costly. DOOR-IN-THE-FACE TECHNIQUE Person is first asked to do something extreme (which he refuses), then asked to do something smaller.

12. Social Judgment Theory • We assimilate new information about attitude objects in light of what we already know/feel • Initial attitude = frame of reference • Latitudes of acceptance and rejection • Messages that fall within the: • Latitude of Acceptance tend to be seen as more consistent with our position than they really are (the Assimilation Effect). • Latitude of Rejection tend to be seen as farther from one’s position than they actually are, resulting in a Contrast Effect. • Example: Latitude of Acceptance “shrinks” as consumers get more involved with an attitude object as in:

13. Balance Theory • Considers how a person might perceive relations among different attitude objects and how he might alter attitudes to maintain consistency • Triad attitude structures: • Perception of attitude object • Perception of other person/object • Relation between other person and attitude object

14. Alex Larry Earring + Alex + + Larry Earring Alex + Alex + + Larry Earring + Larry Earring O Alex Larry Earring Balance Theory Stop liking Larry? Start liking earrings? Convince yourself that Larry really hates earrings? Stop thinking about Larry?

15. Objective 5 – Multi-Attribute Attitude Models • Consumer’s attitudes toward an attitude object depend on beliefs about object attributes • Multi-attribute attitude (MA) models attempt to specify the different elements that work together to influence people’s evaluations of attitude objects • MA models specify three elements: • Attributes of Ao (e.g., college) • Scholarly reputation, cost, weather, social opportunities, co-ops … • Beliefs about Ao • Rensselaer: Great reputation, expensive, so-so weather, what social opportunities?? • Importance weights (relative priority of an attribute to a consumer)

16. The Fishbein Model The most influential multi-attribute model, it has three components: Salient Beliefs (about Ao) Object-Attribute Linkages Evaluation (of each attribute) • Aijk = ∑ijkIijk • Overall Attitude Score (A) = Sum of beliefs () concerning each attribute for a brand x the importance rating (I) for each attribute • i = attribute, j = brand, k = consumer •  = belief regarding the extent to which brand j possesses attribute i • I = importance weight given attribute i by consumer k

17. Saundra’s College Decision

18. The Extended Fishbein Model: The Theory of Reasoned Action • Intentions versus behavior • measure behavioral intentions, not just intentions • What happens on the way to the store • Social pressure • acknowledge the power of other people in purchasing decision • Friends and family • Attitude toward buying • measure attitude toward the act of buying, not just the product • The hassle of purchase

19. Fishbein Model: Marketing Applications • Capitalize on relative advantage • Strengthen perceived product/attribute linkages (convince consumers their brand has a particular attribute) • Add a new attribute • Influence competitors‘ ratings by emphasizing inferior attributes—but need to be careful!

20. Theory of Trying Suggests that the criterion of behavior in the Fishbein model should be replaced with trying to reach a goal. Emphasizes that many factors intervene between intent and performance.

21. Attitude Change and Interactive Communications • Persuasion: An active attempt to change attitudes

22. How Do Marketers Change Attitudes? Reciprocity More likely to give if we receive Scarcity Desire for things not readily available Authority Believe authoritative sources Consistency Not contradicting things we said before Liking Agree with those we admire Consensus Consider what others do before we decide what to do http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4ZcStMsss8

23. Rule of Reciprocity Description Requires a person to repay what another person has provided. 1. Rule is extremely powerful, often overwhelming the influence of the other factors. 2. Rule applies even to uninvited first favors, which reduces our ability to decide whom we wish to owe and putting the choice in the hands of others. 3. Rule can spur unequal exchanges. That is--to be rid of the uncomfortable feeling of indebtedness (dissonance again!!), an individual will often agree to a request for a substantially larger favor, than the one he or she first received. The door-in-the-face technique relies heavily on the pressure to reciprocate concessions. By starting with a request that is sure to be rejected, the requester can then retreat to a smaller request--the one that was desired all along. This request is likely be accepted because it appears to be a concession. The person will also likely agree to future requests. How to Defend Against? The best defense is not total rejection of initial offers, but rather, accepting initial favors or concessions in good faith, while remaining prepared to see through them as tricks! Once they are seen in this way, there is no longer a need to feel the necessity to reciprocate.

24. Scarcity Description Common in high-pressure sales techniques (e.g., "limited number” or “limited time”). The scarcity principle holds true for two reasons: Things difficult to attain are typically more valuable. The availability of an item or experience can serve as a shortcut clue or cue to its quality. When products become less accessible, the freedom to have it may be lost. According to psychological reactance theory, people respond to the loss of freedom by wanting to have it more. This includes the freedom to have certain goods and services. The scarcity principle is most likely to hold true under two optimizing conditions: Scarce items are heightened in value when they are newly scarce (i.e. things that have become restricted recently have higher value than things that were restricted all along. 2. People are most attracted to scarce resources when they compete with others for them. How to Defend Against? Difficult because scarcity pressures have an emotional quality that makes thinking difficult. However, being aware of the propensity allows us to remain calm and assess the merits of an opportunity in terms of why we really want and objectively need it.

25. Authority • Description • Milgram’s obedience studies confirm the strong pressure for compliance when requested by an authority figure. Strength of the tendency to obey legitimate authorities is derived from socialization practices that instill a perception that such obedience constitutes correct conduct. Deference to authorities can manifest as a form of decision-making heuristic or shortcut. When reacting to authority automatically we tend to do so in response to symbols of authority (e.g., titles, clothing, automobiles) rather than to the authority itself. Individuals who defer to authority usually underestimate the effects of authority pressures on their behavior. • How to Defend Against? • Asking the following two questions: • Is this authority truly an expert? Directs attention away from symbols and toward actual evidence for authority status. • How truthful can we expect this expert to be? • Advises us to assess the expert's knowledge and trustworthiness. Communicators often use trust-enhancing tactics in which they first provide some mildly negative information about themselves (ingratiation). This can be seen as a strategy to create the perception of honesty--making subsequent information seem more credible to those listening.

26. Commitment and Consistency Description We have a desire to look consistent through our words, beliefs, attitudes and deeds. A consistent orientation affords a valuable shortcut. By being consistent with earlier decisions we can reduce the need to process all the relevant information in future similar situations. Instead, we merely need to recall the earlier decision and respond consistently. The key to using the principles of Commitment and Consistency to manipulate people is held within the initial commitment. After making a commitment, taking a stand or position, people are more willing to agree to requests that are consistent with their prior commitment. Many compliance professionals will try to induce others to take an initial position that is consistent with a behavior they will later request. Commitments are most effective when they are active, public, effortful, and viewed as internally motivated and not coerced. Once a stand is taken, there is a natural tendency to behave in ways that are consistent with the stand. The need for consistency is a highly potent tool of social influence, causing people to act in ways contrary to their self interests. Commitment decisions, even erroneous ones, tend to be self-perpetuating. That is--those involved may add new reasons and justifications to support the wisdom of commitments they have already made. Some commitments remain in effect long after the conditions that spurred them have changed.

27. Liking People prefer to say yes to individuals they know and like. This rule helps us to understand how liking can create influence and how compliance professionals may emphasize certain factors and/or attributes to increase their overall attractiveness and subsequent effectiveness. Physical attractiveness—Physical attractiveness engenders a "halo" effect that extends to favorable impressions of other traits such as talent, kindness, and intelligence. Attractive people are more successful in getting what they request and in changing others' attitudes. Similarity-- influences both liking and compliance. We like people who are like us and are more willing to say yes to their requests, often without much critical consideration. Praise-- produces liking, and in turn, compliance. It backfires when it is crudely transparent. Increased familiarity-- repeated contact with a person or thing facilitates liking. Holds true when contact takes place under positive, not negative circumstances. One positive circumstance that works well is mutual and successful cooperation. Association. People who seek influence frequently share in a halo effect by associating themselves with favorable events and distancing themselves from unfavorable ones. How to Defend Against? Awareness of this tool allows us to step back from social interactions to objectively separate the requester from his or her offer or request . Decide based on the merits of the request!

28. Social Proof People often view a behavior as more correct in a given situation--to the degree that we see others performing it. Social Proof can be used to stimulate compliance with a request by informing the person that many other individuals (e.g., role models) are doing this behavior. This tool provides a shortcut for determining how to behave. However, it can also make people who rely on this social shortcut vulnerable to the manipulations of others who seek to exploit such influence through such things as seminars, group introduction dinners, retreats etc. Social proof is most influential under two conditions: Uncertainty--when people are unsure and the situation is ambiguous they are more likely to look to the behavior of others for cues and to accept the modeled behavior as correct. 2. Similarity--people are more inclined to follow the lead of others who are similar to themselves. How to Defend Against? Reducing susceptibility to contrived social proofs includes a greater sensitivity to clearly counterfeit evidence. That is--what others are doing and their behavior should not form a sole basis for decision-making.

29. Objective 6 – • The communications model identifies several important components for marketers when they try to change consumers’ attitudes toward products and services.

30. Tactical Communications Options • Who will be sourceof message? • How should messagebe constructed? • What mediawill transmit message? • What target market characteristics will influence ad’s acceptance?

31. The Traditional Communications Model

32. Communication-Human Information Processing (C-HIP) Model Wogalter, DeJoy, & Laughery (1999). Warnings and Risk Communication. London: Taylor & Francis. Wogalter, M.S. (2006). Handbook of Warnings. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum

33. Objective 7 – • The consumer who processes a message is not necessarily the passive receiver of information marketers once believed him or her to be.

34. An Updated Communications Model

35. New Message Formats • M-commerce - marketers promote goods and services via wireless devices • New social media platforms • Blogging • Video blogging (vlogging) • Podcasting • Tweeting • Virtual worlds • Widgets

36. Objective 8 –Message Source Effectiveness • Source Characteristics • Credibility, Relevance, Attractiveness, Likeability, Trustworthiness • Source Characteristic Interactions: Source and Consumer Characteristics • People concerned about social acceptance/the opinions of others are more likely to be persuaded by an attractive source • Internally oriented consumers more responsive to a credible source Source Characteristics as a function of Type of Product • Use experts to promote complex/new/high-risk products • Use celebrities to promote products that help reduce social risk (i.e., impressionmanagement products) • Use “typical” consumers to promote everyday/low-risk products

37. Objective 9 – • The way a marketer structures his/her message determines how persuasive it will be

38. Decisions to Make About the Message • Should we use pictures or words? • How often should message be repeated? • Should it draw an explicit conclusion? • Should it show both sides of argument? • Should it explicitly compare product to competitors? • Should it arouse emotions? • Should it be concrete or based on imagery?

39. The Message Table 7.2 Characteristics of Good and Bad Messages

40. How Do We Structure Arguments? • One-sided: supportive arguments • Two-sided: both positive and negative information • Refutational argument: negative issue is raised, then dismissed • Positive attributes should refute presented negative attributes • Effective with well-educated and not-yet-loyal audiences

41. Comparative Advertising • Comparative advertising: message compares two+ recognizable brands on specific attributes • “Unlike McDonalds, all of Arby's chicken sandwiches are made with 100% all-natural chicken” • Negative outcomes include source derogation

42. Types of Message Appeals Emotional versus Rational Appeals https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfAxUpeVhCg Sex Appeals https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QfVpXykZG5c Humorous Appeals https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPwhMoQBg_8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kpKn-NIAUl4&list=PLFD3060613A23D897 Fear Appeals

43. Objective 10 – • Audience characteristics help to determine whether the nature of the source or the message itself will be relatively more effective.

44. Elaboration Likelihood Model

45. ELM: “Steak” or “Sizzle”? • ELM research indicates that relative effectiveness of a strong message and favorable source depends on consumers’ level of involvement with advertised product • Highly involved consumers look for “steak” • Strong message arguments • Those less involved look for “sizzle” • Packaging colors/images, celebrity endorsers

46. Chapter Summary • Attitudes are very powerful, and they are formed in several ways. • People try to maintain consistency among their attitudinal components and their attitudes and behaviors. • The communications model includes several important components which can be influenced by marketers to enhance the persuasiveness of the message.