European Protest and Coercion

1. European Protest and Coercion 1980-1995 Kristen Anderson

2. Database Background Information • Criteria: Includes all protest and state repressive events with no size minimums or maximums. Only included events with an identifiable date and location. Also included economic conflicts. • Examples: strikes, occupations, hunger strikes, vigils • What’s not included: plans for future protests and strikes, or bombing threats. • Note: Many of these countries were communist during this time period, and experienced regime and government system changes.

3. Frequency of Protest Events Per Country from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Europeancountry

4. Mean and Range • Mean: 3,107 events per country • Range: (France— Cyprus) 14,119 events • Overall, the frequencies of protest/coercive events rose in every country from 1980-1990. • Pattern: General spike upwards around the year 1990.

5. Most Typical Case - Greece Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of Protest/Coercive Events Year

6. Outlier - France Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of Protest/Coercive Events Year

7. Outlier - Cyprus Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of Protest/Coercive Events Year (in 3 year increments)

8. Violence Matrix Placement –Whole Database State Challenger

9. Violence Matrix Placement –Types of protest and repression, and government response Gunfight Torture State Hostage Deployment Seizure Convict Exit Regime Transition Assassination Mobilization Strike Petition Boycott Challenger

10. Protest and repression actions defined and coded: accede: state, company or authority accommodates dissident demand adaptation: dissident change in tactic that precludes a state action agreement: dissidents agree to state offer or compromise appeal: dissident objects to ruling and goes to court or higher court arrest: arrests and detainment related to protest (see also preempt) arson: deliberate burning of a building for political reasons assassination: political murder of state, corporate or group leaders assault: group beating or assault attack: direct military-style or violent group attack on symbols of the state, or of police against dissidents beating: physical assault by police, between dissident groups or by a protest group blockade: state seals off dissidents bomb: report of the presence of an explosive device, whether detonated or not boycott: politically based refusal to act, buy, or cooperate break in: entering a building, base or compound for protest or repression purposes

11. Continued cancel: dissident group calls off event censor: state precludes or revises publications/speech of dissidents closure: dissidents or firms close office due to state or other dissident demands convict: try and convict dissident in court curfew: limit of citizens’ time to be on the streets civil disobedience: non-violent purposeful violation of state laws commitment: state decision to commit dissidents into insane asylums. confiscate: state takes property from dissidents confrontation: direct faceoff between two opposing groups convoy: a line of vehicles of the state or dissidents for conflict coup: a coup d’état, takeover (or attempted takeover) of the government by elites, usually the military declare: public oral protest statements demonstration: protest gathering that generally moves short distances or focuses on a specific target deployment: allocation of state forces in location to prevent or resist protest deport: state expels dissident from the country destroy: to destroy or ruin property for political reasons disband: a dissident organization dissolves

12. dismiss: to release an employee because of dissent disrupt: to disturb or stop a rally, meeting, or a state event escape: dissidents escape from state custody exit: emigration or escape exclusion: barring certain types of people from an organization expulsion: state forces dissidents outside an institution or the country extort: make demand on threat of punishment if the demand is not accepted extradite: to arrest and send a dissident to another country fight: active conflict between state and dissidents or among dissidents fine: to assess a financial penalty for dissent force: state exerts force in opposition to dissent general strike: strike across a city, region, industry or country gunfight: battle between dissidents and state or dissident groups using guns harass: low-level repression; constant surveillance, interference in living or dissident action hide: dissident goes underground to avoid arrest and/or repression hijack: illegally taking over a vehicle hostage: the taking of one or more hostages hunger strike: refusal to accept food for political reasons; forced state feeding is reported impeachment: legal removal of state official that was demanded by dissidents

13. march: group movement from one point to another for a political reason martial law: state suspension of civil liberties and dictatorship control of the country mobilization: activity designed to increase support of a movement motorcade: protest on vehicles murder: killing for political reasons other than assassination or bombing Negotiation: bargaining between state and dissidents or between conflictual groups obstruction: blocking space, e.g., roadblocks occupation: occupying state buildings or workplaces offer: a low-level compromise communication from the state to dissidents or dissidents to the state ouster: police intervene in an occupation and remove dissidents petition: formal petitions, letters and written statements of protest preclude: state refusal to allow dissident free actions preempt: state action that attempts to prevent protest, e.g., mass arrests before a demonstration press conference: dissidents call in the press to make their case proscribe: forbid the existence of a dissident group raid: police attack on dissident dwellings or group building rally: stationary protest gathering refuse: dissidents resist state orders or commands

14. reject: dissidents spurn state or alternative dissident offer regime transition: the changeover from one regime-type to another release: to free a hostage or prisoner repression: general action against dissidents resign: withdrawal from a position as protest riot: generally used for violent prison protests, but also applies to purposeful violence against police robbery: protest group steals goods or money to support itself sabotage: larger-scale harm or destruction of property by dissidents; no direct harm to people search: state searches dissident’s body, property, or home or for a hostage seizure: state seizes dissident property shooting: state or dissidents using firearms, but one-sided shooting slowdown: work-by-rule as a political protest statement: a group makes a public statement strike: withholding labor for economic or political reasons suicide: suicide or attempted suicide for political reason support: citizen or business assistance to dissidents suspend: temporarily release state forces from duty as a punishment symbolic: street theatre, protest against symbols (e.g., statues), and symbolic action (e.g., clothes)

15. terror: use of terror tactics for political reasons torture: systematic harm to dissidents by police or state force under the state’s control or by a rival group trespass: illegally enter restricted areas trial: state trials of dissidents for political reasons ultimatum: threatening if an action is not done unraveling: the dissolution of political organizations into parts (see Paul Johnson, vandalism: low-scale property destruction by dissidents or Skinheads; involves no injury or death vigil: constant dissident presence, as at a shrine or grave of a martyr withdrawal: removal of state forces withholding: refusal to provide funds

16. Albania Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

17. Albania Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 • Majority of challenger events were occupations, demonstrations, and strikes, lasting for long durations of time. There were also some exits and a few bombs. • 4 challengers were arrested out of 13,450 total. • - 2,303 challengers suffered injuries, as compared to 3 state officials. • 136 challengers killed, as compared to 10 state officials killed. State Challenger

18. Austria Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

19. AustriaViolence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 • The most common events were demonstration, bomb, obstruction, and strikes. The time period between the frequency of these events was substantial. • 1,258 protestors arrested out of 8,645,612 challengers total. • - 100 challengers suffered injuries, as compared to 90 state officials. • - 6 challengers were killed, as compared to 10 state officials. State Challenger

20. Belgium Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

21. Belgium Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 • Most of the events were strikes and demonstrations, along with hostage, vigil, and a few bombs. • 3,298 challengers were arrested out of 67,869,859 total. • 760 challengers suffered injuries, as compared to 188 state officials injured. • 2 challengers and 2 state officials were killed. State Challenger

22. Bulgaria Number of protest/coercive events Year

23. Bulgaria Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 - Events varied and consisted of hunger strikes, exits, vigils, occupation, symbolic, boycott, and one assassination. - Of 5,528 challengers arrested out of 58,099,342 total. - 3,546 challengers suffered injuries, as compared to 44 state officials injured. - 118 challengers were killed as compared to 2 government officials. State Challenger

24. Cyprus Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

25. Cyprus Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 - Events were mainly demonstrations, rallies, vigils, and strikes. - 644 arrested out of 4,087,074 challengers total. - Additionally, 37 challengers were injured, as well as 26 state officials. - Of these, 3 challengers were killed as opposed to 1 state official. State Challenger

26. Czech Republic (Czechoslovakia) Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

27. Czech Republic Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1992 • Events were mainly arrest, petition, hunger strike, and demonstration. • 3,674 challengers were arrested out of a total 25,489,188. • 681 challengers injured compared to 20 government officials injured. • 9 challengers killed. No government officials killed. State Challenger

28. Denmark Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

29. Denmark Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 • Events were overwhelmingly strikes, with some demonstrations and boycotts. • 1,524 challengers arrested out of 9,389,262 total. • 128 challengers injured as compared to 100 state officials injured. • An equal number of challengers and state officials were killed, which was 1. State Challenger

30. Finland Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

31. Finland Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 • Events were overwhelmingly strikes. • 216 challenger arrests out of 15,321,818 total. • 1 challenger was injured, and 0 state officials. • There were 0 deaths as a result of challenger events to either side. State Challenger

32. France Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

33. France Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1992 • Events varied widely and were most every day. • 9,532 challenger arrests out of 21,820,726 total. • 7,855 challengers injured, as compared to 1,433 state officials injured. • 53 challengers were killed, a compared to 41 state officials killed. State Challenger

34. Federal Republic of Germany Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

35. Federal Republic of Germany Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 • Events mostly included demonstrations, rallies, strikes, and obstruction. • 66,674 challengers arrested out of 74,084,911. • 3,613 challengers injured, as compared to 2,300 state officials injured. • 25 challengers killed as compared to 34 state officials. • (NOTE: THERE IS A LIKELY DISCREPANCY IN THE DATA. IN FRG years 87-89, there is an event listed as killing 5,000,000 state officials on July 13, 1988. PROBABLY A TYPO. This discrepancy was not taken into account for data gathering purposes.) State Challenger

36. German Democratic Republic Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

37. German Democratic Republic Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 • Events mainly included demonstrations, hunger strikes, and obstruction. • 8,358 challengers arrested out of 12,473,497 total. • 818 challengers injured as compared to 177 state officials injured. • 3 challengers were killed, as compared to 1 state official. State Challenger

38. Greece Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

39. Greece Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 • Events mostly included strikes, demonstrations, and boycotts. • 3,560 challengers arrested out of 67,806,154. • 955 challengers injured as compared to 408 state officials injured. • 14 challengers killed as compared to 25 state officials. State Challenger

40. Hungary Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

41. Hungary Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 • - Events mainly included hunger strikes, demonstrations, and petitions. • 472 challengers arrested out of 5,053,908 total. • 10 challengers were injured as compared to 1 state official. • 1 challenger was killed and 0 state officials were killed. State Challenger

42. Ireland Frequency of Protest Events from 1980-1995 Number of protest/coercive events Year

43. Ireland Violence Matrix Placement, 1980-1995 • Events mainly include strikes, demonstrations, and occupations. • 1,356 challenger arrests out of 48,574,496 total. • 1,478 challengers had injuries, as compared to 781 state officials injured. • 4 challengers were killed, as compared to 10 state officials. State Challenger

44. European Countries Number of Challengers Arrested, 1980-195 Number of Challengers Arrested Number of Challengers Arrested European Country

45. European Countries Number of Challenger Injuries, 1980-1995 Number of Challengers Injured

46. European Countries Number of State Officials Injured, 1980-1995 Number of State Officials Injured

47. European Country Number of Challenger Deaths, 1980-1995 Number of Challenger Deaths

48. European Country Number of State Official Deaths, 1980-1995 Number of State Official Deaths

49. Data Results • Highest frequency of dissent events: France • Lowest frequency of dissent events: Cyprus • Highest number of total challengers: Federal Republic of Germany (74,084,911) • Lowest number of total challengers: Cyprus (4,087,074) • Highest number of challengers arrested: Federal Republic of Germany (66,674) • Lowest number of challengers arrested: Austria (4)

50. Data Results Cont’d. • Highest number of challengers injured: France (7,855) • Highest number of state officials injured: Federal Republic of Germany (2,300) • Lowest number of challengers injured: Finland (1) • Lowest number of state officials injured: Finland (0)