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1. It has beenestimated that about 3000 speciesof plants-usedas foodby humans throughout history± 200- domesticated as foodcrops. TODAY, afterpreferential selection + modificationsof productiveor pleasing cropsonly ± 30 species-ofmajor economic importance.
2. Wheat, Rice,Maize,Barley,Potato, Yam, Tomato,Chillies, Black/white pepper, Cucumber, Gourd,Cotton, Jute, Tea, Grapes. Coffee, Sugarcane, Sugar beet,Coconut, Pine apple, Rubber. medicinal plants, Sphagnum, some edible algae & fungi. Listcan be extended.
3. WHEAT In 2010, worldcerealproductionwas: 1-maize(844 mill. tons), 2- rice (672 mill. tons), 3-wheat 651 mill. tons, 3rd. mostproduced(23 species). Wheatcontributedtotheemergence of city-states in theFertileCrescent, includingtheBabylonian & Assyrianempires. One of thefirstcerealsknowntohavebeendomesticated. Archaeologicalrecordsuggeststhatthisfirstoccurred in theregionsknown as theFertileCrescent.
4. Recentfindingsnarrowthefirstdomestication of wheatdownto a smallregion of SE Turkey,  datedto 9,000  BCE. Firstidentifiablebreadwheat (T. aestivum) withsufficientglutenforyeastedbreads has beenidentifiedusing DNA analysis in samplesfrom a granarydatingtoapproximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in GreekMacedonia. EarlyEgyptiansweredevelopers of breadandtheuse of theovenanddevelopedbakingintoone of thefirstlarge-scalefoodproductionindustries. 
5. HexaploidSpecies CommonwheatorBreadwheat (T. aestivum) – widely cultivatedin theworld. Spelt (T. spelta) –cultivated in limitedquantities. Tetraploid , Durum (T. durum) – 2nd. mostwidelycultivatedwheat. Emmer (T. dicoccum), cultivated in  ancient times-no longer in widespreaduse. Einkorn (T. monococcum) -Diploidwithwild & cultivated variants.
6. Wheat is grown on morethan 240,000,000 ha. fromsealeveltoplains of Tibet ± 4,000 m. ± 0.5–1% of thepopulationsmaygetundetectedcoeliacdisease.  Coeliacdisease-a conditioncausedby an adverseimmunesystemreactiontogliadin, a gluten protein found in wheat ( barley & rye).
7. Uponexposuretogliadin, theenzymetissuetransglutaminasemodifiesthe protein-immunesystemcross-reactswiththeboweltissue, causing an inflammatoryreaction. Flattening of thelining of thesmallintestine, whichinterfereswiththeabsorption of nutrients.
8. Only effective treatment is a life long gluten-free diet. Whilethedisease is causedby a reactiontowheatproteins, it is not thesame as wheatallergy.
9. RICE Geneticevidencepublished in theProc.of theNat. Acad. of Sci. of the USA (PNAS) showsthatallforms of Asianrice, springfrom a singledomesticationthatoccurred 8,200–13,500 yearsago in China of thewildriceOryzarufipogon. A2012 study published in Naturewith map of rice genome variation-indicated that the domestication of rice occurred in the Pearl River valley region of China.
10. In 2003, Koreans claimed to have discovered 15,000-year old age, world's oldest domesticated rice. But Stanford, New York, Washington, & PurdueUniversitiesprovidedthestrongestevidence-only 1 singleorigin of domesticatedrice is in theYangtzeValley of China.
11. Rice &riceproductscontainarsenic, a knownpoison,Group 1 carcinogen. There is no safelevel of arsenic, but, as of 2012, a limit of 10 ppb has beenestablishedfordrinkingwater. Consumption of one serving of rice can give more exposure to arsenic than consumption of 1 lt of water that contains 5 ppb As.
12. Amount of As in rice varies widely-greatest concentration in brown rice & rice grown on land formerly used to grow cotton. China has set a limit of 150 ppbforarsenic in rice. +(Nitratepollution)
13. Maize : Zeamaysssp. mays IndigenousOlmecs & MayanscultivatednumerousvarietiesthroughoutMesoamericain prehistorictimes, cooked, groundorprocessed. In 2500 BC, thecrop spread throughtheAmericas. Sugar-rich varieties called sweet corn are usually grown for human consumption.
14. Field corn varieties are used for animal feed & as chemical feedstocks. 130 mill. tons is usedforcornethanol. Genetically modified maize made up 85 % of the maize planted in the US in 2009.
15. Presentmaize a result of hybridizationbetweenunknownwildmaizeand a species of Tripsacum, a relatedgenus, BUT refutedby modern genetictesting. TeosinteorigintheorywasproposedbytheRussianbotanistNikolaiIvanovichVavilov in 1931 andthelaterAmerican Nobel Prize-winner George Beadle in 1932. GuilaNaquitzCave, site of theoldestknownremains of maize
16. A Tripsacumgrass (big) and a teosinte (small)
17. Teosinte & Maize can cross-breedandproducefertileoffspring. Maizecontainslipid transfer protein, an indigestible protein thatsurvivescooking. This protein has beenlinkedto a rareandunderstudiedallergytomaize in humans.
18. Allergic reaction can cause skin rash, swelling or itching of mucous membranes, diarrhea, vomiting, asthma & in severe cases anaphylaxis. It is unclearhowcommonthisallergy is in the general population.
19. Barley (Hordeumvulgare L.), -majorcerealgrain. An account of barleyrationsissuedmonthlytoadults (30 or 40 pints) andchildren (20 pints) written in cuneiform on clay tablet, written in theyear 4 of KingUrukagina (circa 2350 BC), fromGirsu, Iraq. Evidencefortheexploitation of wildBarley has beendatedto 23,000 BCE.
20. Incoldweather, a big pot of soupsimmering on thestovewarmstheheart as well as thehearth. Addingsomewholegrainbarleytothe pot willimproveyourhealth. Verygoodsource of fiber & selenium, a goodsource of phosphorus, copper, manganese.
21. Barley's Fiber forRegularity, LowerCholesterol & IntestinalProtection. Catechin-7-O-glucoside can be found in H. vulgare.  Alsocontainsthephenoliccaffeic, p-coumaric & ferulicacids, 8,5'-diferulicacid, flavonoidcatechin, proanthocyanidinsprocyanidin B3, procyanidin C2 & prodelphinidin B3 + thealkaloidhordenine.
22. Solanumtuberosum:Potato- a starchy, tuberous crop. IntheAndes-species is indigenous, someothercloselyrelatedcultivatedpotatospeciespresent. An integralpart of much of theworld'sfoodsupply.
23. Genetic testing of the wide variety of cv & wild species proved a single origin for potatoes in the area of present-day southern Peru & extreme northwestern Bolivia (from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex), where they were domesticated 7,000–10,000 years ago.  Nowover a 1000 differenttypes of potatoes.
24. FollowingtheSpanishconquest of theIncaEmpire, theSpanishintroducedthepotatotoEurope in the 2nd. half of the 16th century. Lack of geneticdiversity, & limitednumber of varieties, leftthecropvulnerabletodisease.
25. In 1845, a plant disease, caused by the fungus Phytophthorainfestans, spread rapidly in western Ireland, resulting in thecropfailures-GreatIrishFamine. Thousands of varietiesstillpersist in theAndes,whereover 100 cvmight be found in a singlevalley, a dozenormoremight be maintainedby a singleagriculturalhousehold.
26. Yam is the common name for some plant species in the genus Dioscorea (family Dioscoreaceae) that form perennial herbaceousvines with edible tubers. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) has also been referred to as a yam in parts of the US and Canada-not from family Dioscoreaceae, rather it is  family Convolvulaceae. Yam Sweet Potato
27. D. communissyn. Tamuscommunis (L.) Dioscoreaceae (monocot). Tamus communis Wholeplant - poisonousdueto-saponincontent (but saponinsverypoorlyabsorbedbythe body andsotendtopassthroughwithoutcausingharm). Saponins -huntingtribeshavetraditionally put largequantities of them in streams, lakes in ordertostupefythefish. Toxiceffect of thisplant is not causedbysaponins, but bycalciumoxalatecrystalswhicharefoundmainly in thefruit.
28. Dioscoreabalcanica (YAM) (750 species in 8 or 9 genera). (Tamuscommunis) Forthevegetablesometimescalledyam in the US-  sweetpotato (Ipomoeabatatas) . Forthevegetablecalledyam in New Zealand, Oxalistuberosa.
29. Dioscorearotundata,  D. cayenensis, D. alata, D. opposita, D.bulbifera, D. esculenta, D. dumetorum, D. Trifida. Bitter compounds tend to accumulate in immature tuber tissues of white & yellow yams-may be polyphenols or tannin like compounds.
30. Wild forms of bitter yams contain some toxins, hence referred to as bitter yam. Not normallyeatenexcept at times of desperation in poorcountries & in times of localfoodscarcity. Usuallydetoxifiedbysoaking in a vessel of salt water, in coldor hot freshwateror in a stream.
31. Bitter compounds in the yams are water soluble alkaloids which, on ingestion, produce severe distressing symptoms. Severe cases of alkaloidintoxicationmayprovefatal.
32. Aerial or potato yams too have antinutritional factors. InAsia, detoxificationmethods, involvingwaterextraction, fermentation & roasting of thegratedtuberareusedfor bitter cultivars of thisyam.
33. Bitter compoundsalsoknownlocally asairpotato ,includediosbulbin & possiblysaponins(toxic, causingparalysis). Extractsaresometimesused in fishingtoimmobolizethefish -facilitatecapture.
34. Zulus Community use it as bait for monkeys, while hunters in Malaysia use it to poison wildlife such as tigers. InIndonesia an extract of airpotato is used in thepreparation of arrowpoison.
35. CocoYam (Colocasiaesculenta) Africa (Prize Yam) WildYam in thewoods.
36. Antirheumatic;  Cathartic;  Diuretic;   Emetic;  Haemolytic;   Rubefacient; Root is diuretic. Normallyusedinternally, maceratedrootappliedexternally as a poulticetobruises, rheumaticjointsetc. Rootusedfreshor can be harvested in theautumn & driedforlateruse.
37. Lychee(Litchi chinensis) (Chinese:  pinyin) History of cultivation going back to 2000 BC (China).  Sole member of the genus Litchi inthe soapberry family, Sapindaceae.
38. Wild trees still grow in parts of southern China & on Hainan Island. Many stories of the fruit's; used as a delicacy in the Chinese Imperial Court. Cultivated in Pakistan, Nepal, India, Bangladesh,Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, Japan   & parts ofSouthernAfrica.
39. Lotus: NelumbonuciferaNelumbonaceae. Commonmisconception is referringtothe lotus as a waterlily (Nymphaea), an entirelydifferentplant.
40. Rambutan: Nepheliumlappaceum -Sapindaceae
41. Tomato Red fruit of the plant Solanum lycopersicum.(Lycopersiconesculentum) Aztecs & others in Mesoamericausedthefruit in theircooking-exactdate of domesticationunknown: by 500 BC, it wasalreadycultivated in southernMexico & probablyotherareas.
42. Pueblo people believed that those who witnessed the ingestion of tomato seeds were blessed with powers of divination. Large, lumpytomato, a mutationfrom a smoother, smallerfruit, may be thedirectancestor of some modern cultivatedtomatoes.
43. In biochemistry (many of the alkaloids common to other Solanum species are conspicuously absent in the tomato). Hybrids of tomatoanddiploidpotato can be created in thelab, andarepartiallyfertile, providingevidence of thecloserelationshipbetweenthesespecies.
44. Cortés probably the first to transfer the small yellow tomato to Europe in 1521. Christopher Columbus, may have taken them back as early as 1493. A herbal written in 1544 by an Italian physician & botanist mentions that a new type of eggplant brought to Italy blood red or golden color when mature,can be divided into segments,eaten like an eggplant- cooked , seasoned with salt, black pepper, and oil. Tomatoes named in print by Mattioli as pomi d’oro, or "golden apple".
45. Potentialhealthbenefits Lycopene-protectsagainstoxidativedamage-manystudies. Consumption has beenassociatedwithdecreased risk of breastcancer,head - neckcancers& stronglyprotectiveagainstneurodegenerativediseases.
46. Tomatoes, tomato sauces, puree help  lower urinary tract symptoms (BPH), may have anticancer properties. Consumptionmight be beneficialforreducingcardiovascular risk associatedwithtype 2 diabetes.
47. Planttoxicity Leaves, stems, greenunripefruit of thetomatoplantcontainsmallamounts of thetoxicalkaloidtomatine. Alsocontainsolanine, a toxicalkaloidfound in potatoleaves & otherplants in thenightshadefamily. Use of tomatoleaves in tea (tisane) has beenresponsiblefor at leastonedeath.
48. Tomatine levels in foliage & green fruit - generally too small to be dangerous unless large amounts are consumed as greens. Small amounts of tomato foliage are sometimes used for flavoring without ill effect, and the green fruit is sometimes used for cooking, particularly as fried green tomatoes.
49. Tomato plants can be toxic to dogs if they chew plant material. Comparedtopotatoestheamount ofsolaninein greenorripetomatoes is low; however, solaninepoisoningresultingfromdosagesseveraltimes normal humanconsumption has beendemonstrated, actualcases of poisoningresultingfromexcessiveconsumption of potatoeswithhighconcentration of solaninearerare.
50. Thechilipepper-thefruit  of  genusCapsicum, family-Solanaceae: Banana pepper, a number of species & spices Bellpepper, a Capsicumannuumcv. Cayennepepper, a Capsicumannuumcv. Chilipepper, a number of species Datilpepper, a Capsicumchinensecv. Jalapeño, a Capsicumannuumcv. Florinapepper, a Capsicumannuumcv. Part of thehumandiet in theAmericas since at least 7500 BC. Archaeologicalevidence at siteslocated in southwestern Ecuadorthatchilipeppersweredomesticatedmorethan 6000 yearsago. ChristopherColumbus - one of thefirstEuropeanstoencounterthem in theCaribbean, andcalledthem "peppers“- becauselikeblackandwhitepepper of thePipergenusknown in Europe.
51. Thechilipepper-thefruit  of  genusCapsicum, family-Solanaceae: Banana pepper, a number of species & spices Bellpepper, a Capsicumannuumcv. Cayennepepper, a Capsicumannuumcv. Chilipepper, a number of species Datilpepper, a Capsicumchinensecv. Jalapeño, a Capsicumannuumcv. Florinapepper, a Capsicumannuumcv. Part of thehumandiet in theAmericas since at least 7500 BC. Archaeologicalevidence at siteslocated in southwestern Ecuadorthatchilipeppersweredomesticatedmorethan 6000 yearsago. ChristopherColumbus - one of thefirstEuropeanstoencounterthem in theCaribbean, andcalledthem "peppers“- becauselikeblackandwhitepepper of thePipergenusknown in Europe.
52. In 1995 archaeobotanistHakonHjelmqvistpublished an article in SvenskBotaniskTidskriftclaimingtherewasevidenceforthe presence of chilipeppers in Europe in pre-Columbiantimes. AccordingtoHjelmqvist, archaeologists at a dig in StBotulf in Lundfound a Capsicumfrutescens in a layerfromthe 13th century. Hjelmqvistthought it camefromAsia. HjelmqvistalsosaidthatCapsicumwasdescribedbytheGreekTheophrastus (370–286 BCE) in his HistoriaPlantarum, and in othersources. Aroundthefirstcentury CE, the Roman poetMartialis (Martial) mentioned "Pipervecrudum" (rawpepper) in Liber XI, XVIII, allegedlydescribingthem as longandcontainingseeds (a descriptionwhichseemsto fit chilipeppers - but couldalso fit thelongpepper, whichwaswellknowntoancient Romans).
53. Chilisweregrown as botanicalcuriosities in thegardens of SpanishandPortuguesemonasteries. Monksexperimentedwiththechiliculinarypotentialanddiscoveredthattheirpungencyoffered a substituteforblackpepper, which at the time weresocostlythattheywereused as legal currency in somecountries. Diego ÁlvarezChanca, a physician on Columbus' secondvoyagetothe West Indies in 1493, broughtthefirstchilipepperstoSpainandfirstwroteabouttheirmedicinaleffects in 1494. Thechilipepperfeaturesheavily in thecuisine of theGoanregion of India, whichwasthe site of a Portuguesecolony (e.g., vindaloo, an Indianinterpretation of a Portuguesedish). ChilipeppersjourneyedfromIndia, throughCentralAsiaandTurkey, toHungary, where it becamethenationalspice in the form of paprika.
54. Capsicumanuum, whichincludesmanycommonvarietiessuch as bellpeppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeños, thechiltepin. Capsicumfrutescens, whichincludesmalagueta, tabascoandThai peppers, piri piri, & MalawianKambuzi. Capsicumchinense, whichincludesthehottestpepperssuch as thenaga, habanero, DatilandScotchbonnet. Capsicumpubescens, whichincludesthe South Americanrocotopeppers. Capsicumbaccatum, whichincludesthe South Americanajipeppers. Medicinal Capsaicin is a safeandeffectivetopicalanalgesicagent in themanagement of arthritispain, herpeszoster-relatedpain, diabeticneuropathy, mastectomypain, andheadaches.
55. Piper of thepepperfamily (Piperaceae) Blackpepper, white & greenpepper, PipernigrumCubeb, Pipercubeba, alsoknown as Java pepper. Longpepper, Piperlongum. ThegenusPimenta (genus) of themyrtlefamily (Myrtaceae): Pimentahaitiensis, P. Jamaicensis, P.obscura, Allspice (P. dioicia),P. Racemosa-West Indian bay tree.
56. Otherplantsknown as peppers: Aframomummelegueta-grains of paradise, Alligatorpepper Macropiperexcelsum-kawakawa, Pseudowintera- horopito Pseudowinteracolorata-New ZealandPepperwood Schinusgenus, peppercorntrees, "Pink peppercorns", obtainedfromSchinusmolle Tasmanianpepper, Mountainpepperor "pepperbush", Tasmanniaspecies Vitexagnus-castus, Monk'spepper Zanthoxylumgenus-Sichuanpepper, producedfromthefruit of severalZanthoxylumspecies Zanthoxylumclava-herculis, AmericanPepperwood
57. Blackpepper (Pipernigrum) is a floweringvine in thefamilyPiperaceae, cultivatedforitsfruit, which is usuallydriedandused as a spiceandseasoning. Thefruit, known as a peppercornwhendried, is approximately 5 mm in diameter, darkredwhenfullymature, likealldrupes, contains a singleseed. Peppercorns, andthegroundpepperderivedfromthem, may be describedsimply as pepper, ormoreprecisely as blackpepper (cookedanddriedunripefruit), greenpepper (driedunripefruit) andwhitepepper (unripefruitseeds). Blackpepper is nativetosouthIndia, extensivelycultivatedthere & elsewhere in tropicalregions.
58. Currently Vietnam is theworld'slargestproducer & exporter of pepper, producing 34% of theworld'sPipernigrumcrop as of 2008. Driedgroundpepper has beenused since antiquityforbothitsflavour & as  medicine. Blackpepper -world'smosttradedspice. One of themostcommonspicesaddedtoEuropeancuisineanditsdescendants. Spiciness of blackpepperduetopiperine, not to be confusedwiththecapsaicinfounb in fleshypeppers.
59. Blackpepperproducedfromthestill-greenunripedrupes of thepepperplant. Drupescookedbriefly in hot water, bothtocleanthemandtopreparethemfordrying. Heatrupturescellwalls in thepepper, speedingthework of browningenzymesduringdrying. Drupesaredried in the sun orbymachineforseveraldays-pepperaroundtheseedshrinks & darkensinto a thin, wrinkledblacklayer.
60. Berries can be separatedfromthestembyhand, sun-driedwithoutboilingprocess. Oncethepeppercornsaredried, pepperspirit & oil can be extractedfromtheberriesbycrushing. Pepperspiritused in manymedicinal & beautyproducts. Pepperoilused as an ayurvedicmassageoil & in certainbeauty-herbaltreatments.
61. Groundwhitepepperoftenused in creamsauces, Chinese / Thaicuisine, disheslikesalad, light-colouredsaucesandmashedpotatoes, whereblackpepperwouldvisiblystandout. Whitepepper has a slightlydifferentflavorthanblackpepper, duetolack of certaincompoundspresent in theouterfruitlayer of thedrupe, but not found in theseed.
62. Calicut, Indiapublished in 1572 duringPortugal'scontrol of thepeppertrade
63. GreenPepper Driedgreenpeppercornsaretreated in a waythatretainsthegreencolor, such as treatmentwith SO2, canningorfreeze-drying. Fresh, unpreservedgreenpepperdrupes, largelyunknown in the West, areused in someAsiancuisines, particularlyThaicuisine. Theydecayquicklyif not driedorpreserved.
64. Orangepepperandredpepper Orangepepperorredpepperusuallyconsists of riperedpepperdrupespreserved in brineandvinegar. Riperedpeppercorns can also be driedusingthesamecolour-preservingtechniquesusedtoproducegreenpepper. Pink pepperandotherplantsused as pepper. Pipernigrumdistinctfromthemore-commondried "pinkpeppercorns", whichareactuallythefruits of a plantfrom a differentfamily, thePeruvianpeppertree, Schinusmolle, oritsrelativetheBrazilianpeppertree, Schinusterebinthifolius.
65. Bark of Drimyswinteri (CaneloorWinter's Bark) is used as a substituteforpepper in coldandtemperateregions of Chile & Argentina. Seeds of Kawakawa (Macropiperexcelsum), in New Zealand-relative of blackpepper, sometimesused as pepperandtheleaves of Pseudowinteracolorata(Mountainhoropito) areanotherreplacementforpepper. Severalplants in the US used as peppersubstitutes, such as Lepidiumcampestre, Lepidiumvirginicum,shepherd'spurse, horseradish, &  fieldPennycress.
66. Pepper is native to South Asia & SE Asia -known to Indian cookingsince at least 2 BCE. While pepper was grown in southern Thailand &  Malaysia, most important source was India-Malabar Coast-now the state ofKerala.
67. Peppercorns were a much-prized trade good, often referred to as "black gold" and used as a form of commodity money. Legacy of this trade remains in some Western legal systems which recognize the term "peppercorn rent" as a form of a token payment made for something that is in fact being given. Romans knew of both & often referred to either as just "piper".
68. Blackpepper, alongwithotherspicesfromSouthern & SE Asiaandlandsfarther East, changedthecourse of worldhistory. Insomepartthepreciousness of thesespicesledtothePortugueseeffortstofind a searoutetoChinaduringtheage of discovery-consequentlytothePortuguesecolonialoccupation of thecountry, as well as Europeandiscovery & colonisation of theAmericas.
69. Blackpeppercornswerefoundstuffed in thenostrils of Ramesses II, placedthere as part of themummificationritualsshortlyafter his death in 1213 BCE. Little else is knownabouttheuse of pepper in ancientEgypt & how it reachedtheNilefrom SE Asia. Pepper (long +black) known in Greece at least as early as the 4th century BCE, but probably an uncommon & expensiveitemwhichveryrichcouldafford. 
70. As medicine Likemanyeasternspices, pepperwashistoricallyboth a seasoningand a medicine. Longpepper, beingstronger, wasoftenthepreferredmedication, but bothwereused. Varioussourcesfromthe 5th centuryonwardalsorecommendpeppertotreateyeproblems, oftenbyapplyingsalvesorpoulticesmadewithpepperdirectlytotheeye. No currentmedicalevidencethatany of thesetreatments has anybenefit; pepperapplieddirectlytotheeyewould be quiteuncomfortableandpossiblydamaging.
71. As medicine BlackPepper (orperhapslongpepper) wasbelievedtocureillnesssuch as: constipation, diarrhea, earache, gangrene, heartdisease, hernia, hoarseness, indigestion, insectbites, insomnia, jointpain, sunburn, liverproblems, lungdisease, oral abscesses, toothdecay, toothaches.  Blackpepper, eitherpowderedoritsdecoction, is widelyused in traditionalIndianmedicineand as a homeremedyforrelieffromsorethroat, throatcongestion, cough.
72. Pepper is knowntocausesneezing. Somesources say thatpiperine, a substancepresent in blackpepper, irritatesthenostrils, causingthesneezing. Few, ifany, controlledstudieshavebeencarriedouttoanswerthequestion.
73. Piperine can dramaticallyincreaseabsorption of selenium, vitamin B, beta-carotene & curcumin as well as othernutrients.  As a medicine, pepperappears in theBuddhistSamaññaphala Sutta, chapterfive, as one of thefewmedicinesallowedto be carriedby a monk.
74. Peppercontainssmallamounts of safrole, a mildlycarcinogeniccompound. Eliminatedfromthediet of patientshavingabdominalsurgery & ulcersbecause of itsirritatingeffectupontheintestines-replacedbyblanddiet. Extractsfromblackpepperhavebeenfoundtohaveantioxidantproperties & anti-carcinogeniceffects, especiallywhencomparedtochili.
75. Piperineacts as a thermogeniccompound. Enhancesthermogenesis of lipid & acceleratesenergymetabolism in the body & alsoincreasestheserotonin & beta-endorphinproduction in thebrain. Piperine + othercomponentsfromblackpepperalsohelp in treatingvitiligo.
76. Family: CucurbitaceaeGenus: CucumisSpecies: C. sativus AccordingtotheFoodandAgricultureOrganization of the United Nations, Chinaproduced at least 60% of the global output of cucumbers in 2005, followed at a distancebyTurkey, Russia, Iran andthe United States. Originated in Nepal, where a greatmanyvarietieshavebeenobserved, fromCucumishystrix. 
77. Has beencultivatedfor at least 3,000 years. Listedamongthefoods of ancient Ur, andthelegend of Gilgameshdescribespeopleeatingcucumbers. Somesourcesstate it wasproduced in ancientThrace-certainlypart of modern cuisine in Bulgaria & Turkey, parts of whichmakeupthatancientstate.
78. Plinyalsowritesaboutseveralothervarieties of cucumber, includingthecultivatedcucumber, andremediesfromthedifferenttypes (9 fromthecultivated, 5 fromthe "anguine", and 26 fromthe "wild"). The Romans arereportedtohaveusedcucumberstotreatscorpionbites, badeyesight, andtoscareawaymice. Wiveswishingforchildrenworethemaroundtheirwaists. Theywerealsocarriedbymidwives, andthrownawaywhenthechildwasborn.
79. A YELLOW INDIAN CUCUMBER
80. Armenian cucumbers Cucumis melo var. flexuosus-very long, ribbed fruit with thin skin, does not require peeling, actually an immature melon. Not the same species as common cucumber (Cucumis sativus) but closely related.
81. Gourd -- Cucurbitaceae Gourd - specifically refers to genera Lagenaria  & Cucurbita also includes crops like pumpkins, luffa, cucumbers, squash, etc. One of theearliestcropsto be domesticated, grownfor at least 10,000 years as ornamentationorformakingmusicalinstruments & utensils (suctioncupsbyHippocratesaround 3rd century BC). Gourds of theLagenariagenusfavor a subtropicalortropicalclimateandgrowpoorly in coolerregions, Cucurbita in otherclimates.
82. These include Teasle gourd (Momordica dioica), Spine gourd (Momordica subangulata), Sweet gourd (Momordica cochinchinensis), balsam apple (Momordica balsamina), Momordica sahyadrica, known as vaika in Kerala and Momordica cymbalaria, called athalakka’i in Tamil Nadu. (crossbread 6) 1. OrnamentalGourds (Cucurbitapepo). 2. White Bush Scallop (Cucurbitapepo). 3. SummerCrookneck (Cucurbitapepo). 4. Coyote Melon (Cucurbitafoetidissima). 5. WildCucumber (Marahmacrocarpus). 6. HornedCucumber (Cucumismetuliferus). 7. TeaselGourd (Cucumisdipsaceus). 8. VegetableSponge (Luffaacutangula).
83. Cauliflorous tree called jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophylla) bears the world's most massive tree-bearing fruits from its trunk & lower branches nearly 1 m in length and weigh up to 34 kg. NativetotheIndo-Malaysianregion, thejackfruit is grownthroughoutthetropicsforitspulpy, ediblefruits. Jackfruitanditscloserelative, breadfruit (A. altilis), belongtothediverseMulberryFamily (Moraceae). 
84. Cotton Used in theOldWorld at least 7,000 yearsago (5th millennium BC). Evidence of cottonuse has beenfound at the site of Mehrgarh, whereearlycottonthreadshavebeenpreserved in copperbeads. Cotton cultivation became more widespread during the Indus Valley Civilization, which covered parts of modern eastern Pakistan and northwestern India.
85. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC. Othersourcesdatethedomestication of cotton in Mexicoto ± 5000 to 3000 BC. Greeks & Arabswere not familiarwithcottonuntiltheWars of AlexandertheGreat, as his contemporaryMegasthenestoldSeleucus I Nicator of "therebeingtrees on whichwoolgrows" in "Indica".
86. Actually a referencetothe 'treecotton', Gossypiumarboretum, -a native of theIndiansubcontinent. Planting of cotton was common in Merv (Turkmenistan) ,  Ray & Parsof Iran. Ferdowsi's Shahname-references to cotton ("panbe" in Persian). 
87. In Peru, cultivation of theindigenouscottonspeciesGossypiumbarbadense -backbone of thedevelopment of coastalcultures, likeNorteChico, Moche & Nazca. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets and traded with fishing villages along the coast for large supplies of fish. Herodotus had written in his Histories, that in India trees grew in the wild producing wool, it was assumed that the plant was a tree, rather than a shrub.
88. So the name for cotton in several Germanic languages as-German Baumwolle-"tree wool”. John Mandeville, writing in 1350, stated : "There grew [India] a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungry.
89. Jute plants (Corchorus olitorius  -C. capsularis) Earlier - Tiliaceae, now- Malvaceae. An integral part of the culture of Bangladesh. Initiallyprocessedonlybyhanduntilduetoitstexture, laterdiscoveredthatbytreating it withwhaleoil, it could be treatedbymachine.
90. Tea -Camellia sinensis aromatic beverage(no: 2 after water) Originated in China as a medicinaldrink. Longbeenpromotedforhaving a variety of positivehealthbenefits.
91. Green tea reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease & some forms of cancer, promotesoral health, reducesblood pressure, help with weight control,improve antibacterial & antivirasic activity, provide protection from solar UV light, and increase bone mineral density, "anti-fibrotic properties & neuroprotective power.“ BUT: Additional research needed to "fully understand its contributions to human health, and advise its regular consumption.
92. Tea catechins have known anti-inflammatory & neuroprotective properties, help regulate food intake, have affinity for cannabinoid receptors, which may suppress pain & nausea, provide calming effects. Consumption of green tea associated with a lower risk of diseases that cause functional disability, such as “stroke, cognitive impairment, + osteoporosis” in the elderly.
93. Tea contains L-theanine, an amino acid whose consumption is strongly associated with a calm but alert and focused, relatively productive (alpha wave-dominant) mental state in humans. Thismentalstate is alsocommontomeditativepractice.
94. Statisticalclusteranalysis, chromosomenumber, easyhybridization, & varioustypes of intermediatehybrids & spontaneouspolyploids indicate -a singleplace of originforCamelliasinensis, an areaincludingthenorthernpart of Burma,& Yunnan - Sichuanprovinces of China.  It is believedthat, peoplebegantoboiltealeavesforconsumptioninto a concentratedliquidwithouttheaddition of otherleavesorherbs, using it as a bitter yet stimulatingdrink, ratherthan as a medicinalconcoction."
95. Earlycrediblerecord of teadrinkingdatestothe 3rd century AD, in a medicaltextbyHuaT'o, whostatedthat "todrink bitter t'uconstantlymakesonethinkbetter." In India -drunk for medicinal purposes for a long but uncertain period. Tea contains a large number of possibly bioactive chemicals, including flavinoids,amino acids, vitamins, caffeine and several polysaccharides, and a variety of health effects have been proposed and investigated.
96. Green + black tea may protect against cancer-catechins found in green tea are thought to be more effective in preventing certain obesity-related cancers suchas: liver & colorectal cancer, both green & black teas may protect against cardiovascular disease.
97. Studies suggest significant protective effects of green tea against: oral, pharyngeal, oesophageal, prostate, digestive, urinary tract, pancreatic, bladder, skin, lung, colon, breast, and liver cancers, and lower risk for cancer metastasis & recurrence. BUT -50% greater risk of prostate cancer amongst men who drank more than seven cups of tea per day, compared to those with moderate or lower tea intake.
98. A wide variety of commercial teas appear to either inactivate or kill viruses. Several types of green & black teas, tested on animal tissues infected with such viruses as herpes simplex 1 and 2 and the T1 (bacterial) virus. “Icedteaorregularteadoesdestroyorinactivatethe [herpes] viruswithin a fewminutes“, similarresultsobtainedwiththe T1 virus.
99. Tea may be consumed early in the day to heighten calm alertness; contains L-theanine, theophylline, & bound caffeine(sometimes called theine).  Kahwah is often served after every meal in the Pashtun belt of Balochistan and in KPK. Kashmir -noon chai, a pink, creamy tea with pistachios, almonds, cardamom, + sometimes cinnamon, consumed primarily at special occasions, weddings, during the winter months when it is very cold. In Chitral & Gilgit-Baltistan, a salty,buttered  Tibetan-style tea is consumed.
100. GRAPE Cultivation of domesticated began 6,000–8,000 years ago in the Near East. Earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia.
101. Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the innovation of alcoholic drinks. During an extensive gene-mapping project, archaeologists analyzed the heritage of more than 110 modern grape cv, and narrowed their origin to a region in Georgia, where residues were discovered on the inner surfaces of 8,000-year-old ceramic storage jars.
102. Oldestwineryfound in Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC. In 9th century AD the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines. Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz, a city in Persia where the grape was used to make Shirazi wine. 
103. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of purple grapes, and history attests to the ancientGreeks,Phoeniciansand Romans growing purple grapes for both eating and wine production. In USA native grapes from various species of  Vitis genus were a part of the diet of many Native Americans , BUTVitis vinifera cv were imported.
104. FrenchParadox Comparing diets among Western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, the incidence of heart disease remains low in France. This phenomenon has been termed the French paradox.
105. Potential benefits include: reduced platelet aggregation, vasodilation,polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol) mainly in the grape skin provide many health benefits. Altersmolecular mechanisms in blood vessels, reducing susceptibility to vascular damage.
106. Decreases activity of angiotensin, a systemic hormone causing blood vessel constriction that would elevate blood pressure. Increases production of thevasodilatorhormone, nitricoxide (endothelium-derived relaxing factor). Polyphenols like resveratrolprovide physiologicalbenefitsandprotective effects on the cardiovascular system.
107. Resveratrol Synthesized by many plants, apparently serves antifungal & other defensive properties. Dietary resveratrol modulates the metabolism of lipids and inhibits oxidation of low-density lipoproteins & aggregation of platelets. Found in widely varying amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins & seeds, which, in muscadine grapes, have about 100 times higher concentration than pulp.
108. Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram. In vitro studies indicate that protection of thegenomethrough antioxidant actions may be a general function of resveratrol. 
109. In laboratory studies with mice, resveratrol has transcriptional overlap with the beneficial effects of calorie restriction in heart, skeletal muscle & brain. Both dietary interventions inhibit gene expression associated with heart & skeletal muscle aging, prevent age-related heart failure.
110. Resveratrol-1 year dietary regimen in a Phase III study of elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease. Anthocyaninstendto be themainpolyphenolics in purplegrapeswhereasflavan-3-ols (i.e. catechins) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties.
111. Total phenolic content, a laboratory index of antioxidant strength, is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin. Theseanthocyaninsattract the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health. Phenoliccontent of grape skin varieswithcv, soilcomposition, climate, geographicorigin, & cultivationpracticesorexposuretodiseases, such as fungalinfections.
112. Amount of fermentation time in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content. Ordinary non-muscadine extractcontains 0.2 - 5.8 mg/L, depending on the grapevariety. Whitreformscontainlowerphenoliccontents.
113. Extractsfrommuscadine grapes may contain more than 40 mg/L, an exceptional phenolic content.  In muscadine skins, ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics. 
114. Contrary to previous results, ellagic acid & not resveratrol is the major phenolic in muscadine grapes. Flavonols syringetin, syringetin 3-O-galactoside, laricitrin & laricitrin 3-O-galactoside are also found in purple grape but absent in white grape.
115. Benefits Areas of benefit in graperesearchincludethecardiovascularsystem, respiratorysystem, immunesystem, inflammatorysystem, bloodsugarregulatingsystem, andnervoussystem. Anotherarea of specialbenefit is cancerprevention, with risk of breast, prostate, andcoloncanceremerging as themostlikelyareas of grape anti-cancerbenefits.
116. We often think about the Mediterranean as the home for all grapes, this amazing food is actually native to many parts of the world, including regions in Asia, Africa, and North America. From a botanical standpoint, one of the most widely cultivatedgrapes is Vitisvinifera, and several thousand varieties of this grapeexist. In Asia, one native grape that is widely-cultivated is Vitis amurensis (the Amur grape). Evidencesuggeststheywerecultivated in Asia as early as 5000 BC.
117. Botany, ecology, general characteristics: (other 21 fruits from the world) abiu (Pouteria caimoto),acerola (Malpighiaspp.), annona spp., apple, pear, avocado, Averrhoa carambola, almond, banana, breadfruit, walnut (normal,hindistan, pekan)Durian, chempedak (Artocarpusintegrifolia), guava,pistachio= Pistaciavera; Arachishypogaea- groundnut, pinon=1) Siberian pine, Pinussibirica; 2) Korean pine, Pinuskoraiensis; 3) Italian stone pine, Pinuspinea; 5) Chilgoza pine, Pinusgerardiana; and 5) singleleafpinyon, Pinusmonophylla, Colorado pinyon, Pinusedulis, and other pinyon pine species, jackfruit, mango, langsat and duku (Lansium domesticum), longan (Dimocarpus longan syn. Euphoria longana), mangosteen (Garciniamangostana), Orange, papaya, passion-fruit, pineapple, waxapple, santol(Sandoriumkoetjape)
118. GenusQuercus ± 600 extant species.  Some truffles, have symbiotic relationships with oak trees. BetulapapyriferaQuercuscoccifera-Kermes Oak
119. Any hard-walled, ediblekernel is a nutFamilyFagaceaeBeech (Fagus), Chestnut (Castanea), Oak (Quercus), Stone-oak (Lithocarpus), Tanoak (Notholithocarpus), FamilyBetulaceaeHazel, Filbert(Corylus), Hornbeam  (Carpinus). Fagus orientalis, the Oriental Beech, a deciduous tree-Fagaceae; extends from SE Bulgaria's Strandja mountain through northwest Turkey east tothe Caucasus&AlborzMountains of Iran; restricted to mountain forests;500-2,100 m altitude.
120. Notholithocarpusdensiflorus, a dicot, is a treeorshrubthat is nativeto California and is alsofoundoutside of California, but is confinedto western North America. Notholithocarpusdensiflorusvar. densiflorus, Notholithocarpusdensiflorusvar. echinoides Tanoak is a uniqueevergreenhardwoodthat belongstothebeechfamily (Fagaceae). It has characteristicssimilartobothoakandchestnut. Allother 100 to 200 species of Lithocarpus arenativetosoutheastAsiaorMalaysia. Tanoak (Lithocarpusdensiflorus)
121. Quercusilex, Fagaceae Quercusilex, theholmoakorhollyoak is a largeevergreenoaknativetotheMediterraneanregion. Fallenacorns
122. SphagnumSphagnumcymbifoliumBogMoss,  Sphagnum is a genus of approximately 120 species of mossesSphagnaceae. Peatmoss can alsoacidifyitssurroundingsbytakingupcations, such as calciumandmagnesium, andreleasinghydrogenions.