States of Consciousness

1. States of Consciousness Sleep, Dreams, Hypnosis and Drugs

2. What is Consciousness? • Consciousness is our awareness of ourselves and our environment. • In addition to what we normally think of as “normal, waking awareness”, there are altered states of consciousness as well: • Sleep • Daydreaming • Dreaming • Hypnosis • Hallucinations • Meditation

3. Sleep and Dreams

4. Biological Rhythms Infradian rhythms – occur less than once a day (ex. menstrual cycles occur once every 28 days) Circadian rhythms – occur once during a 24 hour period (circa “about”; diem “day”) Ultradian rhythms – occur more than once a day (ex. cycles of sleep)

5. Circadian Rhythms “Our Biological Clock” Regular body rhythms (i.e. temperature, wakefulness, moodiness) that occur over a 24 hour cycle These rhythms vary with age.

6. Light and Circadian Rhythm Light tweaks circadian rhythm by controlling output of the pineal gland. Pineal gland produces melatonin, the hormone that regulates the sleep/wake cycle.

7. The Stages of Sleep (Ultradian Rhythms) • About every 90 minutes we pass through a cycle of five distinct stages of sleep. • Stage One • Stage Two • Stage Three • Stage Four • REM sleep

8. Brain Waves and Sleep Stages EEG – machine that records brain waves Alpha waves – relatively slow waves displayed in a relaxed but awake state prior to stage one Stage two – characterized by “sleep spindles” (bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain activity)

9. Brain Waves and Sleep Stages Delta waves – large, slow brain waves associated with stages three and four (deep sleep) From deep sleep, we cycle back through stages three and two into REM sleep. Stages 1-4 sometimes referred to as N-REM or non-REM sleep

10. REM Sleep REM – rapid eye movement; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur Sometimes called paradoxical sleep – your body is internally aroused but externally calm 20-25% of sleep is spent in REM

12. Theories of Sleep Sleep protects – evolutionary explanation; dangers of the dark Sleep restores and repairs (RestorativeTheory) - resting neurons need time to repair themselves Sleep helps us remember – reorganizes and rebuilds fading memories from the day Sleep helps our bodies grow – during sleep the pituitary gland releases growth hormones

13. Sleep Disorders Insomnia – problems falling or staying asleep Narcolepsy – spontaneous, uncontrollable lapses direct to REM sleep Sleep apnea – temporary cessation of breathing during sleep Somnambulism – sleep walking Night terrors – high arousal of being terrified; occur in Stage 4

14. Other Sleep Disorders Bruxism – grinding of teeth during sleep Enuresis – bed wetting (Stage Four) Myoclonus – jerking of a body part (Stage One or Two)

15. Dreams In 1899, Sigmund Freud publishes “The Interpretation of Dreams”. Freud called the actual storyline of a dream the “manifest content”. The underlying meaning of those dreams Freud referred to as its “latent content”.

16. Theories of Dreaming • Freud’s wish-fulfillment– according to Freud dreams were “safety valves” that discharges otherwise unacceptable feelings • Dreams release unconscious drives and reduce anxiety • “Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar.”

17. Theories of Dreaming Information-processing – dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate our memories

18. Theories of Dreaming • Physiological function – regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways • “Use it or lose it” theory

19. Theories of Dreaming • Activation-synthesis – REM sleep triggers neural activities that evokes random visual memories which our sleeping brain weaves into stories • Our brain’s attempt to make sense of “neural static”

20. Theories of Dreaming • Cognitive theory – dream content reflects cognitive development • Dreams are essential in brain maturation • Dreams draw on our concepts and knowledge

21. Hypnosis

22. Hypnosis • Hypnosis – state of heightened suggestibility to which people are subject in varying degrees • Highly susceptible people have an exceptional ability to focus their attention totally on one task. • We are all to some degree susceptible to hypnosis. • Degree is measure by the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale

23. Mesmerism Credit for the popularity of hypnosis goes to Franz Anton Mesmer, a physician, who mistakenly thought he discovered “animal magnetism.” Some of his patients experienced a trancelike state and felt better upon waking up.

24. Evaluating Hypnosis • Some research suggest hypnosis IS in fact an altered state of consciousness. • Posthypnotic suggestions carried out when no one was watching. • Brain scans show activity in particular parts of brain responsible for stimuli recognition when stimuli is suggested but not presented. • Hypnosis has helped alleviate chronic pain in some subjects.

25. Evaluating Hypnosis Ernest Hilgard – famous researcher in the field of hypnotics Proposed the divided consciousness theory – idea that hypnosis causes a “split” in awareness

26. Evaluating Hypnosis • Some research suggests hypnosis is NOT an altered state of consciousness. • Social influence theory – states that powerful social influences can produce a state of hypnosis • Requests of the authoritative figure (hypnotist) may cause people to perform suggested acts.

28. Drugs and Consciousness

29. Psychoactive Drugs Psychoactive drug – chemical substance that alters perceptions, mood or behavior. These substances can induce an altered state of consciousness. Include everything from caffeine to crack cocaine and LSD.

30. Effects of Drug Use • Physiological dependence – physical need for a drug • Psychological dependence – psychological need for a drug • Addiction – compulsive drug craving and use • To be classified as addiction drug use must affect day-to-day living.

31. Effects of Drug Use Withdrawal- discomfort and distress that follows when a dependent person discontinues the use of drug. Tolerance – reduced responsiveness to a drug, promoting user to increase dosage to achieve desired effect.

32. Drugs and Neurotransmission Recall the process of neurotransmission.

33. How Drugs Affect Neurotransmission Psychoactive drugs get into your synapses and affect neurotransmission in three different ways. 1. Binding with receptor cells – mimics a neurotransmitter’s effects (Agonists) 2. Blocking receptor sites – prevents neurotransmitters from binding (Antagonists) 3. Blocking neurotransmitter reabsorption – intensifying the effects of neurotransmitter (Antagonists)

34. 5 Classes of Drugs • Depressants: • Alcohol and barbiturates • Opiates: • Morphine and heroin • Stimulants: • Amphetamines (Caffeine and nicotine) • Methamphetamines (“speed”) • Cocaine • Hallucinogens: • LSD and ecstasy (MDMA) • Marijuana

35. Drug Classes Brochure Either alone or in pairs, you are to complete a brochure discussing the 5 classes of drugsand how each class uniquely affects neurotransmission. Please also elaborate on specific types of drugs that comprise each class and other relevant information you acquire from your text. Make the brochure informative and interesting. Avoid including insignificant details and put brochure IN YOUR OWN WORDS!

37. Factors Leading to Drug Use

38. Near Death Experiences What happens after we die? Monist – mind and body inseparable; death is final or belief in bodily resurrection (reincarnation) Dualist – mind and body are two distinct entities that interact; death is mind’s liberation from body (Socrates, Plato, Descartes)