Schools, Violence and Immigrants Suzumi Yasutake Adena Galinsky Nan Marie Astone

1. Schools, Violence and Immigrants Suzumi Yasutake Adena Galinsky Nan Marie Astone

2. Motivation • Consensus View (among scholars) was that school quality didn’t matter very much for student achievement, did matter for adult wages • Problems: • Often did not use random effects, sometimes not school based samples • Achievement and wage literature done on different cohorts • Measures of school quality • All resource based (spending per pupil, class size) • Not always associated with the school, but rather the district and sometimes the state • Effect Moderation • Affect equity, not the mean • Interact with parental involvement

3. Schools, Parents and Outcomes in Adolescence and Adulthood • Aims of the project • to use new methods, new data and new measures to update estimates of the association between school quality and students’ academic achievement and earnings in young adulthood; • to assess whether or not high levels of school resources are associated with a reduction in the negative effects of individual and family risk factors on both academic achievement and earnings in young adulthood; and • to examine whether parental home parental participation in school or parental home involvement varies systematically by school quality

4. National Educational Longitudinal Studies • National Longitudinal Study of the Class of 1972 • High School and Beyond • National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 • Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Birth Cohort • Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort • Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002

5. National Educational Longitudinal Studies • National Longitudinal Study of the Class of 1972 • High School and Beyond • National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 • Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Birth Cohort • Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort • Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002

6. National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) • Nationally Representative Sample of 8th Graders in 1988 • Stratified, sample of schools then sample within schools • Freshened in both 1990 and 1992 • Therefore also nationally representative sample of 10th graders in 1990 and 12th graders in 1992 • Followed Up four times • 1990, 1992, 1994, 2000 • Multiple Informants • Students • Parents (1988 and 1992) • School Administrator (1988, 1990, 1992) • Teachers (3 per student) • Administered their own achievement tests • Linked to the Common Core of Data • Basic database on all public schools in the U.S.

7. First Aim: replicate past work on resource based measures • Selected Students who attended the same high school in 1990 and 1992; • Had a test score in 1988 and 1992 (most also had 1990) • Examined the impact of three conventional indicators of school quality on math test scores • Teacher salaries, class size, and per-pupil expenditures

8. First Aim: replicate past work on resource based measures • processes in high schools account for 15% of the growth in mathematics test scores between 8th and 12th grade; • These results are not attributable to self-selected enrollment of students to high schools with similar socioeconomic characteristics; • Public high schools are egalitarian; the average growth in test scores of schools is uncorrelated with the average level of test scores in the schools. • Attendance at a school where teacher salaries are moderate to high and where per pupil expenditures by local governments are very high is associated with growth in test scores, but the effects were modest.

9. Second Aim: replicate past work on resource based measures • The effects of school quality did not vary by ethnicity (minority), nor low SES, nor low test scores in 8th grade; • Did vary by gender • Teacher-student ratio eliminates negative effect of gender on growth in math • Perhaps decline in ratio responsible for recent equity

10. Suzumi Yasutake Educational achievement and school quality by generations

11. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Interested in the Second Aim • Does School Quality reduce inequality rather than (or in addition to) raising the mean • Measure of Risk is Immigrant Status • Immigration to the U.S. is increasing • Immigrants are poorly educated compared to natives • Immigrants are diverse, however, some are advantaged

12. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Why would immigrants be particularly influenced by school quality? • Parents not that knowledgeable about how to navigate different situations • Positive school experiences particularly important since they are taking all their cues from school • Safety is important because they could be targeted

13. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Also Interested in the First Aim • New Measures of School Quality • Social capital • Scale (alpha=.59) created by adding students’ responses to questions about school spirit, fairness of discipline, good teaching, teachers’ interest in students, feeling safe at school.

14. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Also Interested in the First Aim • New Measures of School Quality • Positive learning environment • Scale (alpha=.68) created by adding administrators’ answers to questions about discipline, students’ priority on learning, structured classroom environment, teachers’ encouragement and teachers’ moral

15. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Also Interested in the First Aim • New Measures of School Quality • Victimization Index • someone threatened to hurt me • got into a physical fight • someone tried to sell me drugs • Something was stolen

16. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Also Interested in the First Aim • New Measures of School Quality • Problem behaviors • Scale (alpha=.74) is constructed from the school administrators’ responsesabout students’ tardiness, absenteeism, class cutting, robbery or theft, vandalism

17. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Also Included • Student-Teacher ratio (old measure)

18. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Research Questions • Does improvement in test scores differ by immigrant status? • Does school quality influence improvement in test scores? • To what extent is immigrant improvement in test scores modified by school quality?

19. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Hypotheses • Improvement in test scores is different by immigrant status. • School quality influences improvement in test scores • The first generation’s test scores are more susceptible to school quality.

20. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Improvement in Math and Reading Test Scores between 1988 and 1990 as well as 1990 to 1992 • Same sample (same high school 90-92) • Look at growth of scores, not level • 3 category outcome • High growth, moderate growth (reference), low growth

21. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Multinomial Logistic Regression • Findings (first research question) • The second generation fare better than the natives in both reading and math in the short run (88-90) • within 2 years (90-92), the first generation caught up with the second generation in growth and also do better than the native students. • In particular, the first generation students caught up with the reading. Their odds of being in the large growth group in 1992 is 1.4 times (exp (0.34)) than the native students.

22. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Multinomial Logistic Regression • Findings (second research question) • 88-90 comparison • Math • Social capital • Positive learning environment • Reading • Victimization • Social Capital

23. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Multinomial Logistic Regression • Findings (second research question) • 90-92 comparison • Math • Social capital • Reading • Social capital

24. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Multinomial Logistic Regression • Findings (third research question) • Immigrants more susceptible to problem behaviors and positive learning environment and ratio (math) • Immigrants more susceptible to social capital in reading

25. Educational achievement and school quality by generations • Immigrants actually grow their scores more than others • especially second generation • high school (90-92) both do better • School quality matters • School quality helps immigrants to do even better

26. Adena Galinsky Victimization Culture and Educational Attainment

27. Victimization Culture and Educational Attainment • Interested in the First Aim (new measures) • In particular, whether a culture of violence at the school level affects adolescents, above and beyond their own experience of victimization

28. Victimization Culture and Educational Attainment • NELS:88 has the following measure of victimization (all measures are “at school” and metric is never, once, twice or more) • someone threatened to hurt me • got into a physical fight • someone tried to sell me drugs • Something was stolen

29. Victimization Culture and Educational Attainment • Hierarchichal Generalized Linear Modeling • Outcomes • High school graduation/GED • Attended college • Both measured in 1994 (8th graders in 1988 would have graduated in 1992 if age for grade)

30. Victimization Culture and Educational Attainment • Looked at both • the individual’s experience of victimization • School mean level of victimization • The method we used allowed us to interpret the coefficient of the school level violence as the effect net of the individual’s experience

31. Victimization Culture and Educational Attainment • Lowest two quartiles of victimization had an increased odds of graduating or earning GED • Lowest three quartiles of victimization had an increased chance of attending college

32. Victimization Culture and Educational Attainment • Measuring Process as well as Resources is important • High mean levels of victimization in high school are associated with outcomes beyond high school, affect adolescents who are not victimized and the add to the already high burden of students who personally experience victimization which is already severe

33. Victimization Culture and Educational Attainment • While money might not matter directly (per pupil expenditure) lowering levels of violence might cost money