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Russia. Dictatorship and Conflict, 1928 - 53. The Leadership Struggle. 1924 - 28. Timeline. 1922: Lenin suffers a stroke, leaving him paralyzed. Writes his testament later in the year Blames Stalin and Trotsky for the split in the Party
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Russia Dictatorship and Conflict, 1928 - 53
The Leadership Struggle 1924 - 28
Timeline • 1922: Lenin suffers a stroke, leaving him paralyzed. Writes his testament later in the year • Blames Stalin and Trotsky for the split in the Party • Stalin had “unlimited power”, but did not know how to use it. Endorsed Trotsky instead • 1923: Lenin suffers another stroke. • Rightists, led by Bukharin, believe that the NEP should be continued • Leftists (Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky) strongly disagree with the NEP, want to focus on industrialization instead • 21st January 1924: Lenin dies. Politburo convenes to chose the next leader of the USSR. • May 1924: Lenin’s Testament is read to the Central Committee • Stalin’s position is weakened: the public now knows Lenin clearly did not support him • However, Zinoviev comes to Stalin’s aid, and as a result the Committee decides to leave Stalin at his post.
Timeline (cont.) • May – December 1925: Stalin and Trotsky have a fierce argument over Permanent Revolution • 1925: Trotsky Resigns as Commissar for War • 1925: Stalin allies himself with the Rightists (Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky) in an effort to drive out Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev, his former allies. • By the end of the year, Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev are all expelled from the Politburo • 1927: Trotsky and Zinoviev are expelled from the party • 1928: Stalin betrays the Rightists, arguing in favor of ending the NEP and moving towards rapid industrialization. Trotsky is deported to Soviet Central Asia • Despite resistance, Stalin has already created a major power base within the Politburo,and thus the Rightists lose their power • 1929: Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky resign from the Politburo. Trotsky is exiled from the USSR. Stalin effectively becomes the supreme leader of the USSR.
Five Year Plans 1928 - 1937
Stalin’s motives for industrialization • The Theory of Productive Forces: before real communism can be achieved, technological advances must be made. • The USSR was heavily behind other European countries in terms of industry (50 – 100 years) • USSR was under threat of attack from several countries • Hitler’s rise to power in 1933: anti - Russian and anti - communist • USSR was surrounded by countries which disliked communism (Poland, Finland, etc.) • In order to show that communism was a valid economic principle, industry needed to become more productive
The Five Year Plans • 1st Five Year Plan: 1928 – 32 (only 4 years) • 2nd Five Year Plan: 1932 – 37 • 1917: Vesenkha (the Supreme Council of National Economy) is set up. • 1921: Gosplan (State Planning Commission) is created. • Stakhanovites: A group of workers who were extremely skilled and efficient at their work • Originated with Alexei Stakhanov, when he extracted over 100 tons of coal in a single shift • Stakhanovites were given better housing; appeared in the news; and were given medals • Many were badly treated by fellow workers, some were murdered • The movement was abandoned in the late 30s • Key Achievements • Dnieper Dam • Moscow Metro • Belomor Canal
Living Conditions • Significant lack of consumer goods • Housing was in extremely high demand, apartments were often shared by several families, with each family getting one room • Husbands and wives found it difficult to spend time with each other due to 7 day work weeks. • Religion was abolished as the Cult of Stalin began to emerge. • Workers who worked harder were given significant benefits, such as tickets to the opera and extra pay.
Working Conditions • Workers worked 7 days a week • Absenteeism was severely punished • Many workers lacked basic training and equipment, as they previously were peasants • Working conditions were dangerous and unsafe (12 - 15,000 died in the construction of the Belomor Canal) • “Shock Brigades” began to emerge • Groups of workers competed against each other to see who could produce the most output • Their equipment and machinery were very well kept • Many worked on rest days • Some put pressure on workers they felt were not diligent enough • Members received special privileges, such as higher pay, better living conditions, paid holidays, etc.
Role of Women • Collective nurseries were set up so that women could also take part in the work • Some women became doctors and scientists, while others became canal diggers and steel workers
Collectivization 1928 - 37
Reasons for collectivization • By the end of the 1920s, it was clear that Russian agriculture was inadequate. • Land was inefficiently cultivated, farming practices were outdated, with little/no machinery used • A new class of peasant, the Kulak, was created by the NEP. Stalin wished to liquidate them. • Kulaks owned more land and livestock than the average peasant • Many Kulaks hoarded grain • In 1928 Stalin announced that the USSR was 2 million tons short of the grain needed to feed the growing number of industrial workers
Collectivization • 1929: Stalin begins the process of collectivization • Kolkhoz: communal farm. 50 – 100 families. • Peasants pooled their fields, livestock and tools. • Instead of selling the grain on the market, it was sold to the government, and the peasants received wages • Collective farms were intended to be more efficient • One tractor for every 40 farms was provided.
The Kulaks • The Kulaks opposed collectivization as they had the most to lose • Many burnt their own crops and slaughtered their livestock • In 1929 there were around 5 million Kulaks. By the end of the year approximately 1.5 million of them had been deported. • The land of deported Kulaks was given to the Kolkhoz • Around 25% of the deported Kulaks died due to harsh conditions
Ukrainian Famine: 1932-33 • Most kulaks lived in Ukraine, the “breadbasket” of Russia • Many kulaks refused to give the government the quota of grain, choosing instead to hoard it. • In response, Stalin sent the NKVD to confiscate their grain. • Stealing/hoarding grain resulted in death • Causes • Collectivization was not popular among many peasants. Resistance in the form of burning crops/killing livestock was common. • The First Five Year Plan forced peasants to cultivate unfamiliar crops • Poor administration and lack of planning caused large amounts of grain to remain unharvested, and a significant proportion of grain was lost during transport • 25,000 people died per day • 25% of the population starved to death • 6 – 10 million died • Evidence to suggest cannibalism
Purges & Show Trials 1934 - 1939
The Kirov Murder: 1934 • Sergei Kirov: Member of the Politburo and Secretary of the Leningrad branch of the Communist Party • 1st December 1934: Kirov is shot as he leaves his office • At the time, his bodyguard is nowhere to be seen. A day later, he allegedly falls off a moving truck while riding with NKVD agents. • The shooter: Leonid Nikolayev • Had been arrested by the NKVD a few days earlier with a gun and plans of Kirov’s movements, but was released. • Nikolayev is tried, found guilty and executed. All relatives are arrested, liquidated or sent to gulags • Stalin’s alleged motives • Kirov: potential threat to Stalin’s leadership • Was handsome, popular, good speaker. • Received almost as much applause as Stalin at the 1934 Party Congress
The Great Purges • Stalin claimed Kirov’s murder was part of a conspiracy against the Party • Claimed that the Left Opposition was involved • Zinoviev, Kamenev and members of the old Left Opposition were arrested and given long sentences. • The purges were aimed at expelling members of the Party who were disloyal to Stalin • Mass Arrests: thousands of party members were arrested and forced to confess to sabotage, treason, etc. • Even NKVD agents were not safe. In 1936 GenrikhYagoda, leader of the NKVD, was arrested and tried at the 3rd Moscow Show Trial • He was replaced by Nikolai Yezhov, who famously said “better that 10 innocent people should suffer than one spy get away” • He himself fell from Stalin’s grace and was executed in 1940, and became a political unperson • 50 – 70% of the members of the Supreme Soviet (formerly the Central Committee) were stripped of their titles and executed/exiled
The Show Trials: 1936 - 38 • Public trials, which were filmed and shown in cinemas • The first show trial involved Zinoviev, Kamenev and 14 others • The 3rd Moscow Show Trial involved Bukharin, Rykov and 19 others • They were accused of being members of a “Trotsky – Rightist bloc”. • Almost all defendants “confessed” to sabotage, treason, etc. and were either taken into forests and executed, or sent to gulags • Death toll: estimates extremely varied, 11 – 40 million
The Great Terror • The purge spread to the army in 1937 • Marshal Tuchachevsky, a Russian war hero from WWI, as well as many other Red Army generals, were arrested and executed • They were accused of treason and espionage • By 1939 every admiral, 3/5 Red Army Marshals and around half the officers of the armed forces had been shot • Anyone who denounced the NKVD/Stalin was labeled a Trotskyite • People often accused each other in order to settle debts • Some were even arrested for “failure to denounce”, thus further encouraging the spread of the atmosphere of fear.
Lenin • After Lenin's death in 1924, a cult of personality was created around his image. • Stalin actively promoted the cult of Lenin • Posters and images appeared througout the USSR • Petrograd was renamed Leningrad. • Lenin's body was embalmed and put on public display • This made it easier for Stalin to create his own cult of personality
Censorship • Photos of Trotsky and Yezhov were altered so that their image was removed from official documents/publications • Musicians could not play music with too much “Western influence” • Writers could only write about the Five Year Plans, etc. • It was illegal to listen to foreign radio
Propaganda • Prevalent in education and film • Emphasized role of women as workers as well as homemakers • Film was used to spread Stalin’s image to the illiterate • “Socialist Realism” – the theory that art, literature and music should reflect and promote socialist ideals • Stalin was depicted as a godlike father figure • The media was also controlled by Stalin • Soviet press maintained that Stalin and Lenin were close when he was still alive • Any negative news about Stalin was not allowed to be printed
Education • In 1935, educations laws allowed teachers to use strict methods of discipline • Report cards, school uniforms and test marks were brought back (abolished in the 1920s) • Textbooks were rewritten to glorify Stalin • Every time a Party leader was arrested, students had to go through textbooks and paste pieces of paper over their faces. • Propaganda was heavily utilized in the classroom: the youth were encouraged to become Pioneers • By 1939, 94% in towns and 86% in the countryside could read and write
Impact of World War II 1941 - 54
Early German Success: 1941 - 42 • 22nd June 1941: Operation Barbarossa - German armed forces invade USSR • 3.2 million soldiers • In 1 week they had advanced deep into western Russia, destroying much of their defenses • The Red Air Force was completely crippled, most planes were destroyed before they could take off • 600,000 Soviets were taken prisoner • 2 months after the initial invasion, the German army started what would become a 900 day siege on Leningrad
Russian Retaliation • Scorched earth policy – make Russia uninhabitable for the Germans • Farmers burnt their crops, killed their livestock, destroyed all their farming equipment • All forms of transportation were destroyed • Bridges, roads, etc. were all blown up • Relocation of factories east behind the Ural mountains • Enabled USSR to continue production of essential war materials • “General Winter”: Harsh conditions prevented the Germans from advancing further • Help from USA: The ‘Lend-Lease’ scheme enabled Russia to sustain the war effort. • Over 1 billion dollars worth of war supplies (food, weapons, medical supplies etc.) were transported to the USSR
Post War Reconstruction • Germans also utilized the scorched earth policy. By 1945, western USSR was a wasteland. • In towns and villages, only chimney stacks remained • Around 1/10th of the population was killed in the war • A 4th Five Year Plan was announced in 1946 to help boost war recovery. • Factories over houses • Capital over consumer • Very successful: in 1950 output was as high as it was in 1940, in some areas higher
Stalin’s Final Years • After WWII Stalin was harsher than before • Politburo and Supreme Soviet never convened between 1947 – 52. Instead, Stalin made all the decisions himself • 1948: Stalin purged the Leningrad Branch because some officers there had a tendency to ignore his commands • Over 1000 Party officials were arrested and shot • Stalin also purged Jewish intellectuals. Jewish magazines/papers were banned • It was at this time a negative image of Stalin emerged. However, the cult of personality countered this view. • Stalin eventually died of a stroke on the 5th of March, 1953