Persuasion and Debate Theory

1. Persuasion and Debate Theory Mr. Lyke

2. What is debate? • Formal method of interactive representational argument • Includes • Persuasion - which appeals to the emotional responses of an audience • Rules - enabling people to discuss and decide on differences within a specific framework

3. Propositional types • Value • A proposition of value contains a relative term that makes a value judgment • Matter under consideration—problematic • “X is good/bad.” under given criteria • The possession of nuclear weapons is immoral.

4. Propositional types • Policy • A proposition of policy evaluates potential courses of action – “Should we do something?” • Agent—cupula (should)—action called for • Systemic: “The US shouldoutlaw smoking.”

5. Propositional types • Belief • All other declarative sentences

6. Propositional characteristics • Appropriate to the knowledge, experience, and interests of both speakers and audience. • Debatable--that is, not obviously true or false. The statements should involve an honest difference of opinion, with arguments and evidence on both sides.

7. Propositional characteristics cntd. • Phrased in the affirmative. Positive statements prevent confusion by making the issue clear-cut. • Restricted to only one idea. This policy keeps the debate within narrow limits. • Worded clearly. The words should be ones that can be defined exactly, so the debate does not become a matter of semantics

8. “Thought” systems SKEPTICISM: “There is no truth” DOGMATISM “My source of information could not be wrong” RELATIVISM “Everyone has their own version of truth” CRITICAL THINKING “The truth exists, though I may not know it… …yet

9. SocratesDialectical procedure • Advance a proposition. • Draw out the implications. • Note any resulting contradictions.

10. Dialectic • Dialectic – discussion and reasoning by dialogue as a method of intellectual investigation • Dialectic statements must be concrete • Cannot be defined using “relational” words e.g. “like” and “better than” • These terms cannot be defined positively (through necessary and sufficient characteristics) • They must be defined DIALECTICALLY (via a CRITERIAL ABSOLUTE) • A is like B (with respect to C) • A is better than B (with respect to C)

11. Factors affecting Dialectic UNCONTROLLABLE FACTORS 1. PUBLICITY 2. REPUTATION 3. DEMOGRAPHY CONTROLLABLE FACTORS (VERBAL) • DOWNGRADING SELF OR SUBJECT • USE OF AUTHORITATIVE SOURCES • 3. ESTABLISHMENT OF OWN AUTHORITY CONTROLLABLE FACTORS (NONVERBAL) • APPEARANCE • Dress • Grooming • Posture • Expression. • VOICE • Modulation • Breathing • Fluency • Diction • DELIVERY • Animation • Enthusiasm • Friendliness • Conversationality

12. Dialectic The “first principles” which constitute the structure of reason and the denial of which renders discourse meaningless. These principles cannot be operationally denied from any theoretical perspective and may be reducible to the law of non-contradiction. They provide the means by which the dialectician can escape the phenomenological circle of his rhetoric and validate the components of his deep rhetoric

13. SURFACE RHETORIC ACTUAL, EMPIRICAL, RECORDABLE COMMUNICATION OR BEHAVIOR (TALK) MATERIAL ADDED (UNCONSCIOUSLY) BY THE LISTENER TO COMPLETE THE ENTHYMEME DEEP RHETORIC

14. SURFACE RHETORIC Argument bases Ultimate terms (God, Devil) Pertinences Resonances Style DEEP RHETORIC How is this accomplished??

15. So What!?! What we know is affected by What we learn which affects What we do

16. Human action involves choice To say, “I choose A,” is to say all things considered that “A” (the option I elect) “I believe, is better than “B” (all the options I reject.) But “better than” is a form of “good,” and “good” is the fundamental value term. Therefore; All human choice, hence, all human action is value laden. It involves sentiment.

17. Realms of Choice 1. A person operates according to his/her meaning 2. A person operates through choice. 3. To say “I choose A” is to say, “(I believe, all things considered) A is better than B. 4. But, “better than” is the comparative form of “good.” 5.All human choice, hence, action, involves value--is “value laden.” person

18. Realms of Choice order state God aesthetic political religious theological person senses Moral ethical Taste appetite goal Etc. Practical prudential person

19. Law of non-contradiction “A” is not “not “A” A thing cannot both “be” and “not be” at the same time.

20. Law of the Excluded Middle • Every statement is either true or false.

21. Test Determine for oneself if a proposition is true Proof Establish the validity of the proposition Convince Bring others to believe the proposition is true

22. PROOF Anything that leads to assent That gets the audience to say “YES” to an assertion.

23. PROOF artistic nonartistic speaker created evidence roadmap notes “stuff” standing about If the speaker did not exist, neither would the artistic materials. Propositions the audience establishes are relatively free of speaker bias

24. PROOF Modes of persuasion used in Speech Communication ethos pathos logos Personal Proof Emotional proof Sentiment Intellectual proof (argument) (logic & evidence)

25. Proofs / Persuasion

26. ETHOS (ETHICAL PROOF PERSONAL PROOF CREDIBILITY) audience assessment of the speaker Classical formulation character (virtue) benevolence (good will) sagacity (wisdom) trust-worthiness dynamism (charisma) Expertise (knowledge) Modern formulation

27. PATHOS Emotional proof - Sentiment Includes all those materials and devices calculated to put the audience in a frame of mind suitable for the reception of the speaker's ideas

28. Pathos:Proper sentiment Bathos:Sentimentality, loose laughter and unnecessary tears Must not be confused with

29. LOGOS An appeal toreason: Argument using Form (logic) & Material (evidence)

30. SYLLOGISM (ARGUMENT) Major premise if “A” is “B” and Minor premise if “C” is an “A” then Conclusion “C” is “B” VALID FORM

31. SYLLOGISM (ARGUMENT) Major premise if All pigs are green and Minor premise if Rosie is a pig then Conclusion Rosie is green Valid form; untrue material

32. SYLLOGISM (ARGUMENT) Major premise if All men aremortal. All men aremortal. All men aremortal. Middle term and Major term Minor premise if Socrates is a man. Socrates is a man. Socrates is a man. then Minor term Conclusion Socrates is mortal. Socrates is mortal. Socrates is mortal. Valid form, true material Sound argument

33. Hypothetical Syllogism (very similar to scientific inquiry) • The major premise of a hypothetical syllogism is a hypothetical proposition (an “if…then” [antecedent…consequent] statement) • The minor premise must affirm or deny the hypothesis or consequent • Valid options: • A. Affirm the antecedent (the “if” statement) • B. Deny the consequent (the “then” or conclusion • Invalid options: • A. Deny the antecedent • B. Affirm the consequent

34. If plants are green Then the plants are alive hypothesis consequent The plants are green Stuff Living stuff The plants aren’t green The plants are alive The plants aren’t alive Green plants Major premise All green plants are alive Minor premise Conclusion

35. If plants are green Then the plants are alive hypothesis consequent The plants are green Stuff Living stuff The plants aren’t green The plants are alive The plants aren’t alive Green plants Major premise All green plants are alive Minor premise Conclusion

36. How would you test the validity of the following statements? • Water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. • CG & E built its first hydroelectric plant in 1911. • Slavery is immoral.

37. Domains of knowledge Science History Philosophy Goal of inquiry Discover eternal, universal natural laws “capture” particular, spatio-temporally bound event Discover eternal, universal non-natural principles Source of knowledge Experiment involving empirical data testimony Dialectical examination Validation assumption Data under consideration is articulated via material causation Event is not logically or materially necessary Universe is coherent (logos)

38. Causation • The concept of causation is that you can assign the reason for a result to a specific initiating action • There are several issues with causation both positive and negative • The most important element of causation is support and analysis

39. Formulations • If “A” then, necessarily, “B.” • If “not A” then “not B.” • If “not B” then “not A.” • “A” is the generator of “B.” • “B” is the inevitable result of “A.”

40. Types of causation • Sufficient condition • Establish causal chains (to where intervention can alter outcome) • Whole chain constitutes sufficiency • Necessary condition • If B, then A • and • If not—A then not—B • “A” is the presumed causal factor—”B” the event • Necessary and sufficient condition • If B, then A and if not—A then not—B • All variables “A” must align to complete the event “B”

41. Designating factors as causes • Triggering factor • Unusual factor • Controllable factor • Factors can also be referred to as events

42. Causal explanation • X: To say: “A caused B” (about particulars) • “X” can be coincidental so is not positive explanation • Z: “When A occurs (under conditions C) then B occurs” • “Z” constitutes a “causal law.” and the grounds of a deductive explanation

43. Method of Agreement • If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigation have only one circumstance in common… logically… • The circumstance in which alone all the circumstances agree is the cause (or effect) of the given phenomenon.

44. The Method of Differences • If an instance in which a phenomenon under investigation occurs and and an instance in which it does not occur have every circumstance in common save one… Logically… • That one occurring in the former; the circumstance in which the two instances differ is the effect, or the cause , of the phenomenon.

45. The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference • If two or more instances in which the phenomenon occurs have only one circumstance in common and • Two or more instances in which it does not occur have nothing in common save the absence of that circumstance… Logically… • The circumstance in which alone the two sets of instances differ is the effect, or the cause of the phenomenon.

46. The Method of Concomitant Variation • If a phenomenon varies in any manner whenever another phenomenon varies in the same manner, it is either a cause or an effect of that phenomenon or is connected with it through some fact of causation.

47. Complications of Causation • Experiment bias • Theoretical prevarication • Poor operationalization • Statistical errors • Lack on balance (universality) condition • Inappropriate data level

48. Proof Truth Evidence Opinion Fact Whatever convinces (subjective) The way things are, objectively—regardless of anyone’s opinion Nonartistic materials Claims one believes Opinions based on empirical data. Proper understanding requires distinctions between:

49. Sign • Ratio Cognoscendi (a way of knowing) • Uses a symptom or outward mark to prove the existence of something which cannot be directly observed.

50. Reliability • Infallible (cannot be disproven) • Pregnancy is caused by sexual activity • Fallible (easily proven wrong) • Black clouds will cause rainfall