Trait Theories

1. Trait Theories • Gordon Allport decided to study personality in terms of fundamental and measureable traits. From him we get phrases like 'identifiable behaviour patterns'. • The best known tool is the Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator, still widely used. • NRC reports that despite the test's popularity in business and career counselling, its initial use outran research on its value as a predictor of job performance. (Druckman & Bjork, 1991). • So..a trait is a characteristic pattern of behaviour or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports. Note the lack of a strict behavioural perspective.

2. Factor Analysis • This is a statistical procedure used to identify cluster of test items that tap basic components of a trait. • The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire reduces most personal characteristics to three scales, two of which have high predicitive ability: extraversion/introversion, emotional stability/instability. The last scale--psychoticism--has trouble distinguishing between career criminals and nursing students. It may all be biological. Studies indicate that extraverts seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low. PET scans show that a frontal lobe area involved in behavior inhibition is less active in extraverts than in introverts. (Johnson et al., 1999).(m548 c528) Dopamine and related neural activity tend to be higher in extraverts. (Wacker et al. 2006)(m548 c528).

3. MMPI • The most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use) this test is now used for many other screening purposes. • It is empirically derived, developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that best discriminate between groups. • The questions are grouped into 10 clinical scales, an example of which would be hypochondriasis. • In contrast to the subjectivity of projective tests, personality inventories are scored objectively. • Trying to score well will high a high score on the lie scale, that assess faking.

4. The Big Five Factors • Memorize Table 42.1 (m552 c532 t13.3)for the next exam. • Big Five research has explored various questions: • How stable are these traits (as compared to states)? • How heritable are they? Heritiability runs about 50% for each dimension, and genetic influences are similar in different nations. (Yamagata et al., 2006). • Researchers have also identified brain areas associated with the various Big Five traits, such as a frontal lobe area that is sensitive to reward and is larger in extraverts. (DeYoung et al., 2010)(c 532 m 552). • Does the Big Five predict other behavioural attributes? Yes. • Hertel et al., 2008) Shy introverts are more likely than extraverts to prefer communicating by email rather than face-to-face.

5. Person-Situation Controversy • We look for genuine personality traits the persist over time and across situations. • As Fig. 42.2 (m553 c 533 f13.4) illustrates, data from 152 long-term studies reveal that personality trait scores are positively correlated with scores obtained seven years later. With age, personality traits become more stable. (Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000). • Our traits are socially significant. They influence our health, thinking & job performance. (Hogan, 1998). • Peoples average outgoingness, happiness, or carelessness over many situations is predictable. (Epstein, 1983). • In unfamilar, formal situations, our traits remain hidden as we carefully attend to social cues. (Buss, 1989).

6. Social-Cognitive Theories • Alfred Bandura (2008) emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations. • Social-cognitive theorists believe we learn many of our behaviours either through conditioning or by observing and imitating others. We then think about our situations and interact with the environment. • This leads to reciprocal determinism: Fig. 42.3 & Fig 42.3 (m556 c 536 f13.5 & 13.6) • Different people choose different environments. (Funder, 2009). • Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events. (Eysenck et al., 1987). • Our personalities help create situations to which we react. (Donnellan et al., 2005).

7. Locus of Control • In study after study, persons with an internal locus of control achieve more in school and work, act more idependently, enjoy better health, and feel less depressed that do 'externals'. (Ng et al., 2006). • Internals are better at delaying gratification and coping with various stressors, including marital problems. (Miller & Monge, 1986). • One British study that followed 7551 subjects for two decades found that internals at age 10 exhibited less obesity, hypertension, and distress at age 30.(Gale et al., 2008)(m557 c538). • This is contrasted to external locus of control, the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determines our fate.

8. Learned Helplessness • Martin Seligman (1975) pioneered this concept. Fig. 42.5 • When repeatedly faced with traumatic events over which they have no control people come to feel helpless, hopeless, and depressed. • Measures for prisons, factories, colleges & nursing homes normally feel they have little control over their environment. • Measures that increase control noticeably improve health and morale. (Wang et al., 2010). • In one study of nursing home patients, 93% of those encourage to exert more control became more alert, active and happy. (Rodin, 1986). • But are we happier? The tyranny of choice brings information overload and a greater likelihood that we will feel regret over unchosen options.

9. A More Positive Psychology • Positive psychology shares much ideology with humanistic, but its methods are scientific. • Positive well-being ( Schueller, 2010). • Positive health (Seligman et al., 2011). • Positive neuroscience explores the biological foundations of positive emotions, resilience & social behavior. • Positive education, which evaluates educational efforts to increase students' engagement, resilience, character strengths, optimism, and sense of meaning. • Positive social ecology includes healthy families, communal neighbourhoods, effective schools, socially responsible media, and civil dialogue.

10. Too Much Positive? • Ironically, people are the most overconfident when they are the most incompetent. It is the phenomenon of 'the ignorance of one's own incompetence'. (Kruger & Dunning, 1999). • To assess behaviour in situations, military & educational organizations are adopting assessment centre strategies. (Eurich et al., 2009). This is done by observing and measuring behavior during simulation exercises. The most famous is the U.S. Navy SEALs 'Hell Week'. • Comparing the Major Personality Theories: Study Table 42.2 for the next exam. (m563 c543 t13.4)

11. Self-Esteem • Children's academic self-concept--their confidence that they can do well in a subject--predicts school achievement, but their self-esteem does not. (Swann et al., 2007). • Consider the opposite: in experiments, people made to feel insecure often become excessively critical, as if to impress others with their own brilliance. (Amabile, 1983). • People accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad, and for successes rather than failures. This is self-serving bias (Mezulis et al., 2004). • Most people see themselves are better than average. In one study, 49% of men said they provided half or more of the child care, 31% of their wives or partners agreed. (Galinsky et al., 2008)(m565 c546) • The final problem is excessive narcissism. Reality TV stars are the norm now. (Young & Pinsky, 2006).