Pregnancy and Human Development Part A

1. Pregnancy and Human Development Part A 28

2. From Egg to Embryo • Pregnancy – events that occur from fertilization until the infant is born • Conceptus – the developing offspring • Gestation period – from the last menstrual period until birth • Preembryo – conceptus from fertilization until it is two weeks old • Embryo – conceptus during the third through the eighth week • Fetus – conceptus from the ninth week through birth

3. Relative Size of Human Conceptus Figure 28.1

4. Accomplishing Fertilization • The oocyte is viable for 24 hours • Sperm is viable 72 hours (longer if cervical mucas is optimal) • For fertilization to occur, coitus must occur no more than: • Three days before ovulation • 24 hours after ovulation • Fertilization – when a sperm fuses with an egg to form a zygote

5. Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration • An ovulated oocyte is encapsulated by: • The corona radiata and zona pellucida • Extracellular matrix • Sperm binds to the zona pellucida and undergoes a reaction • Enzymes are released near the oocyte • Hundreds of sperm release their enzymes to digest the zona pellucida. Only one sperm makes it in, but hundreds need to release the enzymes that break the outer coating ogf the oocyte.

6. Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration Figure 28.2a

7. Blocks to Polyspermy • Only one sperm is allowed to penetrate the oocyte • Two mechanisms ensure monospermy • Fast block to polyspermy – membrane depolarization prevents sperm from fusing with the oocyte membrane • Slow block to polyspermy – zonal inhibiting proteins (ZIPs): • Destroy sperm receptors • Cause sperm already bound to receptors to detach

8. Completion of Meiosis II and Fertilization • Upon entry of sperm, the secondary oocyte: • Completes meiosis II • Casts out the second polar body • The ovum nucleus swells, and the two nuclei approach each other • When fully swollen, the two nuclei are called pronuclei • Fertilization – when the pronuclei come together

9. Events Immediately Following Sperm Penetration Figure 28.3

10. Preembryonic Development • The first cleavage produces two daughter cells called blastomeres • By the fourth or fifth day the preembryo consists of 100 or so cells (blastocyst)

11. Cleavage: From Zygote to Blastocyst Degenerating zona pellucida Inner cell mass Blastocyst cavity Blastocyst cavity Trophoblast (a) Zygote(fertilized egg) (c) Morula3 days (b) 4-cell stage2 days (e) Implanting blastocyst6 days (d) Early blastocyst4 days Fertilization(sperm meets egg) (a) (b) (c) Ovary Uterine tube (d) Oocyte(egg) (e) Ovulation Uterus Endometrium Cavity of uterus Figure 28.4

12. Implantation • Begins six to seven days after ovulation when the trophoblasts (outer layer of ovum) adhere to a properly prepared endometrium • The trophoblasts then proliferate and form two distinct layers • Cytotrophoblast – cells of the inner layer that retain their cell boundaries • Syncytiotrophoblast – cells in the outer layer that lose their plasma membranes and invade the endometrium

13. Implantation • The implanted blastocyst is covered over by endometrial cells • Implantation is completed by the fourteenth day after ovulation

14. Implantation • Viability of the corpus luteum is maintained by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) secreted by the trophoblasts • hCG prompts the corpus luteum to continue to secrete progesterone and estrogen • Chorion (immature placenta) - after implantation, continues this hormonal stimulus • Between the second and third month, the placenta: • Assumes the role of progesterone and estrogen production • Is providing nutrients and removing wastes

15. Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy Figure 28.6

16. Placentation • Formation of the placenta from: • Embryonic trophoblastic tissues • Maternal endometrial tissues

17. Placentation • The chorion develops fingerlike villi, which: • Become vascularized • Extend to the embryo as umbilical arteries and veins • Lie immersed in maternal blood • Decidua basalis – part of the endometrium that lies between the chorionic villi and the stratum basalis

18. Placentation Figure 28.7a-c

19. Placentation Figure 28.7d

20. Placentation Figure 28.7f

21. Embryonic Membranes • Amnion – epiblast cells form a transparent membrane filled with amniotic fluid • Provides a buoyant environment that protects the embryo • Helps maintain a constant homeostatic temperature • Amniotic fluid comes from maternal blood, and later, fetal urine

22. Embryonic Membranes • Yolk sac – hypoblast cells that form a sac on the ventral surface of the embryo • Forms part of the digestive tube • Produces earliest blood cells and vessels • Is the source of primordial germ cells

23. Embryonic Membranes • Allantois – a small outpocketing at the caudal end of the yolk sac • Structural base for the umbilical cord • Becomes part of the urinary bladder • Chorion – helps form the placenta • Encloses the embryonic body and all other membranes

24. Gastrulation • During the 3rd week, the two-layered embryonic disc becomes a three-layered embryo • The primary germ layers are ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm • Primitive streak – raised dorsal groove that establishes the longitudinal axis of the embryo

25. Gastrulation • As cells begin to migrate: • The first cells that enter the groove form the endoderm • The cells that follow push laterally between the cells forming the mesoderm • The cells that remain on the embryo’s dorsal surface form the ectoderm • Notochord – rod of mesodermal cells that serves as axial support

26. Primary Germ Layers • Serve as primitive tissues from which all body organs will derive • Ectoderm – forms structures of the nervous system and skin epidermis • Endoderm – forms epithelial linings of the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital systems • Mesoderm – forms all other tissues • Endoderm and ectoderm are securely joined and are considered epithelia

27. Primary Germ Layers Figure 28.8a-e

28. Primary Germ Layers Figure 28.8e-h

30. Effects of Pregnancy: Anatomical Changes • Chadwick’s sign – the vagina develops a purplish hue • Breasts enlarge and their areolae darken • The uterus expands, occupying most of the abdominal cavity • Lordosis is common due to the change of the body’s center of gravity • Relaxin causes pelvic ligaments and the pubic symphysis to relax • Typical weight gain is about 29 pounds

31. Parturition: Initiation of Labor • Estrogen reaches a peak during the last weeks of pregnancy causing myometrial weakness and irritability • Weak Braxton Hicks contractions may take place • As birth nears, oxytocin and prostaglandins cause uterine contractions • Emotional and physical stress: • Activates the hypothalamus • Sets up a positive feedback mechanism, releasing more oxytocin

32. Stages of Labor: Dilation Stage • From the onset of labor until the cervix is fully dilated (10 cm) • Initial contractions are 15–30 minutes apart and 10–30 seconds in duration • The cervix effaces and dilates • The amnion ruptures, releasing amniotic fluid (breaking of the water) • Engagement occurs as the infant’s head enters the true pelvis