Chapter 19

1. Chapter 19 A Revolution in Politics: The Era of the French Revolution and Napoleon

2. The War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) • Habsburg Emperor Charles VI unable to produce male heir • spent his reign negotiating the Pragmatic Sanction to ensure European powers accepted Maria Theresa (daughter) as heir • Pragmatic Sanction only lasted as long as Charles VI did • Frederick II invaded Austrian Silesia • France joined Prussia for chance to war with Austria • Maria Theresa made an alliance w/ Great Britain • (fearing French dominance in continental affairs) • War had become a world wide affair • Europe: Prussia took Silesia and France occupied Austrian Netherlands • Asia: France took Madras in India from British • North America: Britain captured Louisbourg on the St. Lawrence R. • By 1748, all parties were exhausted & agreed to stop • Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) promised to return all seized territories but Silesia to their rightful owners • Guaranteed another war between at least Prussia & Austria

3. The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) • Maria Theresa refused to accept the loss of Silesia • working diplomatically through her foreign minister to separate Prussia from its ally, France • Continued to build the military to prepare for war • Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry had been a fact of political life in Europe since the 16th century • New concerns and rivalries outweighed old ones • Colonial empires (Britain v. France), holdings in Europe (Prussia v. Austria) • France allied with Austria • Russia joined the alliance because Prussia was a threat to interests in Europe • Britain allied with Prussia against the others • Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 led to another worldwide war • Once again had 3 major areas of conflict: Europe, India, & N. America

4. Battlefields of the Seven Years’ War

5. Conflict in Europe • clash of two major alliances • France, Austria, & Russia • Great Britain & Prussia • Frederick the Great was able to defeat the combined forces of his enemies, but under attack from 3 directions gradually wore down • saved from total defeat when the Tsarina Elizabeth died & her nephew Peter III took control • Peter withdrew Russia from the conflict & all Prussian lands • turned a hopeless situation into a stalemate vs. France & Austria • European conflict ended by Peace of Hubertsburg (1763) • all seized territories were returned & Austria recognized Prussian control of Silesia War in India • France returned Madras to Britain after the War of Succession • jockeying for power in Asia continued • Robert Clive led British forces to victory in India through persistence • by the Treaty of Paris 1763, France withdrew & left India to British

6. The French and Indian War • greatest conflict of Seven Years’ War was in North America • points of contention • Gulf of St. Lawrence • unsettled Ohio River valley • French moved south along the Mississippi & established forts from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River • French movement threatened British expansion • French found allies among the Native Americans • Indians saw French traders as less threatening than British settlers • initial French success • several British naval victories in 1759, gave Britain an advantage, since France’s success depended on naval reinforcement • British victories followed, went on to seize Quebec, Montreal, the Great Lakes region, & Ohio Valley • Settled by Treaty of Paris (1763) • France lost Canada & all holdings east of Mississippi R. • Spain ceded Florida to G.B., France gave Louis. Terr. to Spain

7. Beginning of the Revolutionary Era:The American Revolution • After Seven Years’ War, British looked for ways to obtain new revenues from 13 colonies to pay expenses for defending the colonists (ex. Stamp Act 1765) • Basic Policy Problem: • Britain envisioned single empire w/ Parliament as supreme authority • only Parliament could make policy for all people in empire • Colonists had their own representative assemblies • believed king & Parliament had no right to interfere w/ internal affairs or levy taxes w/o consent of the representative assembly • July 4, 1776 – Second Continental Congress approved Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence • affirmed the Enlightenment ideas of natural rights of “life, liberty, & the pursuit of happiness” • declared the colonies to be “free and independent states absolved of all allegiance to the British crown”

8. American War for Independence • 2nd Cont. Congress authorized a Continental Army under George Washington • Washington logical choice as commander in chief • military experience in French & Indian War • political experience in Virginia • a southerner brought balance to effort that had been focused in New England • War was not simple choice for colonists • 15-30% of pop. Loyalists – questioned the rebellion • 15-30% were Patriots – pushed rebellion • most colonists were apathetic at beginning of the war • Foreign support from enemies of Britain important from the beginning • France gave money & arms to rebels as revenge for previous British defeats • Cornwallis surrenders to Washington at Yorktown 1781 • Treaty of Paris signed 1783 • Americans now control the western territory to the Mississippi River

9. Forming a New Nation & Impact on Europe • fear of concentrated power and concern for individual interests caused little enthusiasm for a united nation • 1781 – Articles of Confederation ratified • 1787 – delegates meet to revise A. of C., scrap it & devise new constitution • 1788 - United States Constitution approved • 1789 – Congress proposed 12 amendments to Constitution • will only be ratified if “certain liberties” can be guaranteed • first 10 approved became Bill of Rights • many of the rights were derived from the natural rights philosophies of the Enlightenment • Europeans saw the A.R. as embodiment of the Enlightenment theories • premise of the Enlightenment seemed confirmed • a new age & better world could be achieved • many Europeans received information about America from returning soldiers • In long run, A.R. much less important than the French Revolution • F.R. more complex, more violent, & far more radical • F.R. remains the political movement that inaugurated the modern political world

10. Background to the French Revolution Social Structure • First Estate - clergy • 130,000 people • owned 10% of land • exempt from taille • High clergy stemmed from aristocratic families, priests came from lower families • Second Estate – aristocracy • 350,000 people • owned 25-35% of land • exempt from taille • still played a major in French politics • Third Estate – commoners • 26.5 million people, owned 30-40% of land • obligations to local landlords from feudal sys. • 2.3 million bourgeoisie (middle class), 25% land • over the 18th century, 6,500 bourgeoisie families became nobility, changing classes • Commoners, burdened by taxes, came to resent members of the 1st & 2nd Estates that didn’t pay taxes

11. Problems Facing the Monarchy • Long range causes of revolution rooted in frustration at monarchy’s inability to deal w/ new social realities & problems • Bad harvests in 1787 & 1788 and manufacturing depression led to rise in food costs & unemployment Ideas of Philosophes • increased criticism of privileges, social & political institutions • did not advocate revolution, but as Revolution began many quoted Enlightenment writers like Rousseau Failure to Make Reforms • Noble judges ran Parlementary courts, refusing to register royal edicts • “defended” liberty by blocking monarch’s power, but pushed their own interests Financial Crisis • immediate cause of F.R. was a near financial collapse • Govt. borrowed so much money, by 1788 – ½ govt. spending was to loan interest • 1789: needed to raise taxes, called Estates General (had not met since 1614) • crown essentially admitted that it needed permission of estates to raise taxes

12. The French Revolution From Estates-General to National Assembly • opened on May 5, 1789, had not met since 1614 • 1614: each estate had 300 delegates & each estate had 1 vote • Split from beginning about how to vote (by estate or by individual) • Louis XVI agreed to double # of 3rd Estate delegates, but didn’t say how voting would take place • 1st & 2nd Estates wanted to vote by Estate, 3rd wanted individual votes • Ceremonial annoyances begin to perturb 3rd Estate • Can not sit in king’s presence • Can not wear hat in king’s presence • Only ½ of a set of French doors open for 3rd Estate delegates • Louis gave no indication to E.G. how to function or what to do • 3rd Estate refuses to begin unless all delegates meet in 1 hall & vote by head • Higher Estates blame “commoners” for “holding things up” (52 day stand-off) • June 17th, 1789 – 3rd Estate voted itself a National Assembly and draw up a constitution • On June 20, 3rd Estate arrives at meeting hall to find it locked, move down street into nearby indoor tennis courts & vow to keep meeting until they finish a constitution. (Tennis Court Oath)

13. The revolution essentially began w/ Tennis Court Oath • mainly driven by 3rd Estate lawyers • 3rd Estate had no authority to form National Assembly • Louis prepared to use force to “end nonsense” • Revolts in urban & rural areas drew Louis XVI’s attention from the 3rd Estate during July and August • Common people used the name of the 3rd Estate to wage war on the rich • Paris: mob activity was so bad, the people of Paris the “Permanent Committee” to keep order • Needed weapons, so organized a popular force & took the royal armory • July 14th, attacked the Bastille (former state prison used as an armory) • only contained 7 prisoners when it was stormed • more symbolic than important, but saved the National Assembly • citizen’s militia became the National Guard, led by Marquis de Lafayette

14. The Great Fear • late July – tight time for farmers, most out of food stores, not ready to harvest new crop • hail storm in July 1788 destroyed most of that year’s crop, famine imminent • Peasants fear that nobles will resort to burning crops to end revolution • Great Fear: 7/19 - 8/3/1789 radical peasants begin burning leases, forced lords to renounce dues & tithes and some resort to violence Destruction of the Old Regime • 3rd Estate realizes that they own land & fear peasants coming after them • Aug. 4, 1789 – National Assembly renounces privileges (hunting rights, etc.) titles & feudal dues • Aug 26 – adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (p. 542) • reflected ideas of the philosophes & owed much to the American Declaration

15. Louis XVI remained inactive at Versailles • He did refuse to support the abolition of feudal taxes & the declaration of rights • Oct. 5, 1789 – mob of Parisian women (and the Nat’l Guard) march on Versailles demanding bread & the king’s return to Paris • Louis complies on Oct. 6, bringing flour from palace stores in good will • He then accepted the N.A.’s decrees • King essentially prisoner in Paris • 1791 – Nat’l Assembly had new constitution, Legislative Assembly (L.A.) & a limited monarchy • 1789 – Nat’l Assembly abolished all local & provincial divisions & divided France into 83 departments (roughly equal in size & pop.) • each department divided into districts & communes and run by elected officials (most offices went to bourgeoisie, not nobles) • Nat’l Assembly faced opposition from within (Jacobins p.544 & sec B 5) • Aug 1791 – Austria & Prussia invite European monarchs to take action to put the king of France back on the throne • European monarchs too suspicious of each other to act • Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria (Aug. 1792) & fared poorly • radicals in Paris attacked royal palace & L.A. call for a nat’l convention

16. Radical Revolution • San-culottes, led by George Danton, sought revenge on those who had aided the king and resisted popular will (September Massacres) • thousands of presumed traitors arrested & executed • ordinary tradesmen & artisans solved overcrowding in prisons • Nat’l Convention met in September 1792 • called to draft new constitution, also served as ruling body of France • dominated by lawyers & professionals, also included artisans • 2/3 of deputies under 45 yrs. • most had political experience as result of F.R. • First step was to abolish monarchy & establish a republic (9/21/1792) • Factions formed over fate of king, both were from the Jacobins • Girondists: mod. Republicans, wanted to keep king alive • Mountain: rad. Republicans, wanted the king executed • The Mountain won out. Jan 21, 1793 – Louis XVI was beheaded • Marie Antoinette followed, Louis XVII died in prison • created new enemies at home & abroad while strengthening old enemies

17. A Nation in Arms • 1793 – N.C. created the Committee of Public Safety (dominated by Danton & later by Maximilien Robespierre) • 8/23/1793 – Committee of Public Safety mobilized the entire country to meet foreign crisis & save Republic from foreign enemies • In less than a year, French army was 650,000 strong • 9/1794: 1,169,000 soldiers • The Republic’s army – “a nation in arms”- was the largest ever seen in European history • Pushed the anti-French forces across the Rhine & captured Aust. Netherlands • Domestic threats as well, Committee of Public Safety had to institute the “Reign of Terror”

18. Robespierre & the Reign of Terror • Reign of Terror lasted from July 1793 – July 1794 • ~50,000 enemies of the revolution killed • No social class distinction in the Terror • misconception that upper class was the focus • Of killed - nobles 8%, middle class 25%, clergy 6%, peasants 60% • Robespierre’s desire was to build a “Republic of Virtue” • when foreign & domestic threats ended, bloodshed would subside • Robespierre – believer of Rousseau & his idea of “general will” • believed France could only become a republic of virtue through terror • as more people died, his followers wondered if things were out of hand • not even Robespierre’s fellow leaders felt safe • Danton & other politicians were executed in early 1794 for trying to stop Terror • members of the NC arranged for Robespierre’s arrest on Jul 27, 1794 • the next day he & his followers executed by guillotine • Declaration of the Rights of Man did not give women equal citizenship, but they gained rights – divorce easier, could inherit prop.

19. Reaction and the Directory • so called “Thermidorian Reaction” occurred • moved away from excess of NC • 1795 - moderates drafted another Constitution • 3rd constitution since 1789 • Constitution of 1795 • set up 5 man Directory & 2 house legislature of elected officials • Jacobin club closed • freedom of worship reestablished • laissez-faire economic policies adopted • the Directory relied on military support to maintain power • led to a coup d’etat allowing general Napoleon Bonaparte to seize power

20. The Age of Napoleon Napoleon (1769-1821) • dominated French & European history from 1799-1815 • called himself a “Son of the Revolution” • the F.R. gave him the opportunity to rise through the military ranks • also said “I am the Revolution”, reminded the people that they owed him for retaining everything beneficial from the F.R. • Oct. 1795 – saved the N.C. from a mob with “a whiff of smoke & a hand-full of grapeshot”, promoted to major general. • led French victories in Italy 1797, lost to British & abandoned army to return to France in 1799 (welcomed as a conquering hero) • took part in coup d’etat that led to his virtual dictatorship of France • With the coup of 1799, new Republic w/ new constituion • Bicameral legislature w/ indirectly elected officials to reduce role of elections

21. Executive power in hands of 3 consuls (real power belonged to 1st consul) • Napoleon served as First Consulate until 1804 • Napoleon controlled the executive branch, influenced the legislative, controlled the army & conducted all foreign affairs • 1802 – named “Consul for Life”… • Who does it wound like he’s emulating? • returned France to monarchy in 1804, crowning himself Emperor Napoleon I • brought stability & permanence to France not possible w/ consulate • revolution began to limit authority of the king, ended up with a far more autocratic system, but the people did not object • at each step in his rise to power, he held a plebiscite (a yes or no vote on an issue) • to understand why the people supported him, you have to understand his policies

22. The Domestic Policies of Emperor Napoleon I • Concordat w/ the Church • Napoleon made peace w/ Cath. Church in 1801 • gave French gov’t authority to appoint French clergy & pay salaries • Church had right to confirm/refuse appointments, lost land from FR • Code Napoleon • longest lasting of his policies, applied to all of France • equality of citizens (men), religious toleration, abolition of serfdom • applied the merit system (got jobs/promotions based on ability/service) • Women actually lost rights gained in revolution • Centralization of Administration • taxation more systematic & efficient • no exemptions due to birth or social status • state censorship of newspapers & books • Other Reforms • Offered emigres full pardons to return to France • founded system of public education, regulated economy to control prices, encourage new industry & build roads and canals • Peasants allowed to keep land gained in FR

23. Napoleon’s Empire & Europe’s Responses • Empire had 3 parts: France, dependant states, Allied states • By 1807, defeated continental members of European coalition • sold Louisiana Territory to the US in 1803 to finance his war efforts • brought Code Napoleon to all conquered land, but territories had to provide soldiers for his army, taxes to finance it, & raw materials • opposition to Napoleonic rule smashed, those who first welcomed him as a liberator grew to hate him • his Grand Empire failed due to GB and the survival of nationalism • 1805 – French navy defeated by GB at Battle of Trafalgar (coast of Spain) • Napoleon started Continental System - blocked British goods from entering French controlled territory to hurt economy • policy failed, Britain started own blockade & found new markets • British blockades & attacks on American ships led to War of 1812 • Russia openly violated Napoleon’s Continental Sys. • June 1812 – Napoleon marched the Grand Army east (600,000 troops) • Reached Moscow in September, winter setting in • Moscow was in ruin, burnt to ground; French tried to salvage any supplies • October 1812 – began 1,000 mi. journey home; ambush, starvation & disease caused 540,000 casualties

25. The End of Napoleon • Failure of Russian march, led to war of liberation throughout Europe (1813-1814) • April 1814 – Allied forces capture Paris, Napoleon abdicates & exiled to island of Elba (of coast west of Italy, south of France) • Bourbon monarchy of Louis XVIII (Louis XVI brother) restored • Napoleon escaped Elba in March 1815, returned to Paris as a hero • Began time known as The Hundred Days • Waterloo – Napoleon finally defeated in June 1815 by a coalition force led by British Duke of Wellington & Prussian general Gebhard von Blucher • Napoleon captured & exiled to St. Helena Island – 1000 mi. of Atlantic coast of Africa • lived out last 6 years of life, still rumored that he was poisoned