The 18 th Century

1. The 18th Century The Age of Enlightenment

2. Mercantilism • Mercantilism involved heavily regulated trade within European countries. • Countries did not trade with each other. Mercantile nations believed that in order for one nation to succeed, another must fall. • Colonies were formed to provide natural resources to the mother country. • These new colonies created rivalries between France and Britain. This was the beginning of Britain’s long time control of India. • In the long run, mercantilism did not help Europe as a whole. Countries became selfish and did not bring wealth to all of Europe. • Britain made the East India Company- this was the beginning of their long time interest in India. –They were there for economic reasons, not to make political differences.

3. Spanish Colonialism • Spain entered the American empire to gain metals to ship back to Spain. • While this colonialization happened the Treaty of Utrechthad Spanish Habsburgs were replaced by the Bourbon of Frances. This occurred after the The War of Spanish Succession.

4. Mid-18th Century Wars • 7 Years’ War: (1756–63), a power struggle in Europe, North America, and India that involved most of the nations of Europe. Prussia emerged from the war as a powerful state. Great Britain, victorious over France, became the world's greatest colonial power. • Treaty of Paris, 1763- Britain received all of Canada, Ohio River valley, and eastern half of the Mississippi River valley. France was no longer a great colonial power, they were replaced by Britain. Britain is now the country to beat • Prussia took Silesia from Austria and the Habsburg power now depended on the Hungarian domains.

5. American Revolution • The American Revolution had an effect on the rest of Europe. • France entered the revolution because of their rivalry with England. –This led to France going into extreme debt. • Debt in France created turmoil and later led to the French Revolution. • The American Revolution was overall a radical movement and the creation of the Bill of Rights influenced later revolutions and classes looking for change in their countries.

6. Philosophes and the Enlightenment • Isaac Newtown and John Locke were the leaders of the Enlightenment. • Isaac Newton: He revealed the laws of Gravity and worked mechanical and mathematical rationality into the physical world. • He emphasized that nature and society should be organized rationally. • He emphasized concrete experience, this influenced John Locke and the rest of Enlightenment thinkers.

7. John Locke • Locke was influenced by Isaac Newton and stated that through experience, the personality is formed. • Locke brought about new ideas regarding religion. He believed that people can take control of their own destiny and God does not decide all factors of life. • His rival was Thomas Hobbes, who believed that people are naturally savage and that the government should restrain them. Locke on the other hand believed that government was their to protect the rights of its citizens. • John Locke and Newton’s ideas influenced England and led to reform. They accepted all religions except of Unitarians and Roman Catholics.

8. Printing Press • During the 18th century the printing press became much more prominent, allowing more people to become literate and spread ideas. • With the increase of printing, being an author was now a legitimate job. • Writers that did not gain success often turned to blaming the government for their lack of success. –they transferred their bitterness into the lower-class audience. • Now, opinion could be talked about openly and through literature.

9. The Philosophes • Philosophes were the writers, economists, or historians of the 18th century who had attitudes favorable to change and supported reform and toleration. • The most famous were Voltaire, Kant, Rousseau, Hume, Gibbon, Smith, Lessing, Diderot, and D’Alembert. • Philosophes supported the expansion of trade, improvement of agriculture and transport, and inventions that would help the economy of the 18th century. • Voltaire was the first of the Philosophes. He went to England and praised their toleration and virtues, and disparage France’s. He was a strong supporter of reform of society and religious toleration.

10. Politics of Philosophes • France held the most unhappy philosophes, for the government of the country was corrupt and influenced too much by the church. • Montesquieu- wanted a constitution like England’s. “Spirit of the Laws.” He created the division of power in government. • Rousseau- “The Social Contract” The people had their own personal freedoms but they are also apart of a larger community of individuals. • Many philosophes were racist. They wanted expansion into other nations to spread the “civilization” of Europe.

11. Enlightenment and Religion • Deism: a religious outlook shared by most philosophes. Built on the Newtonian world-machine that suggested the existence of a mechanic (God) who had created the universe. Religion based on rationalism • Toleration: religious toleration was not popular in Europe other than in England. Judaism was scorned. • Spinoza: • lived in the Netherlands and advocated for a secularized version of Judaism, excommunicated from the Jewish community in Amsterdam, the philosophes considered him a martyr for rationality against superstition. • Mendelssohn: • lived in Germany and was known as the “Jewish Socrates” • He advocated for the assimilation of Jews into modern European life. • wrote On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism in which he argued for religious toleration and the maintenance of distinct Jewish communities

12. Women in the Enlightenment • Montesquieu: supported equality for women in society (but held traditional beliefs that a man should dominate in marriage and family life) • Rousseau: men and women were placed in separate spheres • Women: should be educated but in a lower rank than men (primary job is to bear and raise children), inferior to men except for giving love, no political rights • However, portrayed the role of being a wife and mother is fulfilling and noble (gave women of the nobility and middle class a sense of purpose) • Diderot & the Encyclopedia: had articles that dealt with women’s’ physical weakness and inferiority • MOTHERHOOD= most important occupation • Mary Wollstonecraft: sought personal liberty and economic independence • A Vindication of the Rights of Women- she states that men and women were created equal, but women received less education • Women were subjected to be inferior to men. Although they were allowed some leeway, men remained the dominant figure of the family and the household

13. Art in the Enlightenment • Rococo vs. Neo-Classicism • Similarities: both found the importance of color in enhancing the image, keep its artistic value using decorative feature such as painting and sculptures for Rococo and statues for Neoclassicism • Differences:Rococo= light-hearted, whimsical style of decorative art, Neoclassicism: emphasized courage, sacrifice, nationalism, and tradition.

14. Enlightened Rulers • Frederick the Great of Prussia was an enlightened ruler. He emphasized promotion through merit and was a strong supporter of religious toleration. • Frederick allowed open conversations in the government and schools. This earned him the praise of professors. His economic reforms brought prosperity to Prussia and put it on the map. • Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was known for being extremely rational. • With Maria Theresa, they gave more rights to the peasants and limited the nobility. • Although he was Catholic, Joseph supported a more limited toleration of religions. He made the clergy of the Catholic Church, workers of the state. • Catherine the Great was the least Enlightened of the three. • She supported the nobility so they would support her back. She put lots of local power into the hands of the nobility. • She did expand agriculture and expand the territory of Russia.

15. Enclosure and Population • The enclosure act occurred during this time. This transformed villages that had peasants collectively working on farms into many different farms enclosed. • The original farmers did not like this but the system was made to use land more rationally and to make greater profits. • The population was booming during this time. Because the population went up, so did the need for food and consumer goods. • There were fewer wars and epidemics so the death rate went down. • Achievements in agriculture led to children getting the nutrition they needed and living into adult hood

16. Slavery • Spanish and Portuguese imported African slaves -English colonist in Chesapeake Bay turned to African slave labor too… • European slave traders relied on Africans to supply them with other African slave. --West Indies, Brazil, Sugar • -TranslanticEconomy- First slaves arrived in North America in 1619. Slavery became major social presence in West Indies and Brazil • -Sugar Industry and Slavery- Slavery decreased in many areas of Spanish South America, rose in Brazil and the Caribbean to supply expanding sugar plantations with labor-Brazil used slave labor to produce tobacco and coffee, and gold mining • Because of high mortality rates among slave populations, reproduction rates of slaves were very low. New slaves were imported from Africa to sustain a large labor force. Slaves introduces new languages, culture, and beliefs • -Experience of Slavery- Condition on slave ships were cramped, quality of food=poor, disease=rampant Seasoning: process which recent arrived slaves were indoctrinated with the idea that they were no longer free. • -Preservation of African language in the New World enable slaves to organize themselves with other slaves of similar ethnics, serving as a sign of unit

17. Industrial Revolution • Industrialization made it possible for more goods to be made for the population. • Consumer goods were the biggest phenomenon. Fashion changes and needs for different silverwares added to industrial needs. • The putting out system in textiles was made. • Merchants brought fabrics to peasants to be spun and then those were given to other peasants to finish the product. • Creation of the spinning jenny, water frame, steam engine. Iron was made in large quantities. • Because of the revolution, the main cities in Europe grew in size. Ports became very important with the emergence of mercantilism. • The emergence of city life brought the urban class forward. Which was made of the upper class of nobles, large merchants, the middle class made of trades people and bankers. The artisans made up the largest portion of the any city.

18. First Stage of French Revolution • Because France was in such debt, the monarchy demanded there to be more taxes. In 1770 René Maupeou was named chancellor and he abolished the parlements. • An article by Necker made clear that it was the pensions of aristocrats that was putting the country in debt. At the Assembly of Notables, the aristocrats refused to make any reforms in this. • The Estates General was called. The Clergy was the clergy, 2nd was nobility, and the 3rd was everyone else. The two could outvote the 3rd, even though they had more people to represent. • Finally the 3rd had double the votes of the first two. When the 3rd returned with representatives they wrote the cahiers de doleances (list of grievances. • The third estate asked the clergy and nobles to join them to make their own assembly. With a few priests, they made the National Assembly. • Louie replied by locking them out of the Estates General, this led to the Tennis Court Oath. There, they renamed themselves the National Constituent Assembly, to show that they wanted to write a constitution for France.

19. 1st stage continued • Louis did not want the National Constituent to be successful. He raised troops in Paris. • The Paris of people were making a militia to protect the Assembly, the rev had begun. They stormed Bastille to get weapons. • The “Great Fear” – peasant farmers storm aristocratic homes to burn paperwork. After this, all French citizens were equal. • On August 27, 1789 the Assembly released the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. (declared civic equality and popular sovereignty) • Parisian women march on Versailles to demand bread. • The new gov wanted to make a constitutional monarchy (legislative assembly makes laws) with freedom in economics and anticlericalism in religion. Workers associations were outlawed. • The assembly would get its money by selling the Roman Catholic Church’s land. The Civil Constitution made the church a sector in the state. Priests and Bishops were paid by the state. • Olympe de Gouge’s Declaration of the Rights of Woman. • Some aristocrats moved to the borders of France and became emigres. They plotted their own revolution. Louis tried to get out of France, but was capture and returned. HE was held in Paris w/ his family. • This startled people like King Frederick William II of Prussia who wanted to preserve the monarchy and keep revolution from spreading in the rest of Europe.

20. The Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria which started “The wars of the Revolution” • Commander of the Prussian army, about to invade France, issued the Brunswick Manifesto- threatening the people of Paris if the king was ever harmed • The appeal to nationalism inspired the French people to drive back the invaders; meanwhile, the First Coalition (Austria, England, Netherlands, Prussia, Spain) wanted to attack France • The Jacobins: middle class, Paris mobs. The Girondists: peasants in the rural area • Both wanted control of the National Convention • Robespierre: leader of the Jacobins, pushed for the execution of the king (treason) • National Convention ended up having the Jacobins left in control • The Committee of Public Safety: launched the Reign of Terror…Execution of over 20,000 people (a lot of them were working class & peasants) • The Republic of Virtue: by the Committee of Public Safety in an attempt to DE-CHRISTIANIZE France • Alienated the Catholic majority of France. Divorce the state from the Church!

21. French Revolution(Directory):Final Stage • political body that governed France between the fall of Robspierre in 1794 and the rise of Napoleon I (r. 1804-1814) in 1799. • Designed to keep a single person from wielding too much power, • it was an executive body comprised of five members instituted by the new constitution. • Challenges: remaining Jacobins and royalists. • Napoleon's supporters toppled it with relative ease and replaced it with a three-man consulate in which Napoleon was the First Consul.

22. Partition of Poland • Fredrick the Great of Prussia made a proposal to Russia and Austria that would give each something it wanted and also prevent war among the major powers. • Frederick’s plan • Russia agreed to abandon the conquered Danubian provinces and in return received a large portion of Poland. • Because Prussia agreed to remain neutral in growing hostilities, it received most of the territory between East Prussia and Prussia proper. • Austria took Galicia in southern Poland with its important salt mines. • In 1772, the Polish nobility paid the price for maintaining their local sovereignty and not creating a unified central government, as Poland was swallowed by the major central-eastern European powers.