MANAGING AND LEADING FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE

1. MANAGING AND LEADING FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE

2. MANAGING AND LEADING FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE • Performance can be managed in two ways: • Through job design and goal setting • Behaviour reinforcement and rewards

3. MANAGING PERFOMANCE THROUGH JOB DESIGN AND GOAL SETTING

4. Job design and goal setting • Definition of job design • The methods that management uses to develop the content of a job, including all relevant tasks, as well as the processes b which jobs are constructed and revised • Job design is becoming increasingly important because the nature of work is changing in the light of various recent trend – intrusion of advanced IT, internet, intranet and e business • Such recent trends have changed the meaning of such things as “on work and off work times” • Because of technology, a person can be on work even when at home, driving, traveling or in bed

5. People today have home offices complete with internet, fax machines, mobile telephones etc • Teleconference are replacing face to face meeting • Generally, the telecommunications are giving employees opportunities to work from home • All this create new challenges for job design models

6. Dimensions/approaches of job design • Job enrichment – vertically loading the job to provide more opportunities • Job engineering • Scientific management, industrial engineering approach • Concerned with product, process and tool design, plant layout, standard operating procedures, work measurements and standards, worker methods, and human machine interaction • Quality of work life (QWL) – a broad based approach suggesting the importance of overall climate, social- technical designs and teams

7. Job characteristics – building skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback into the job

8. Importance of job design • It can reduce stress • It can enhance motivation of employee • Can improve job satisfaction and commitment • Can improve employee performance allowing organisations to effectively compete in the global market

9. Job re/design • there are two spectrums to follow • job enlargement • job enrichment.

10. Job enlargement • Increasing the number of task each employee performs • Job enlargement adds a more variety of tasks and duties to the job so that it is not as monotonous. • This takes in the breadth of the job. • That is, the number of different tasks that an employee performs. This can also be accomplished by job rotation.

11. It enables workers use more skills in performing their tasks • May reduce efficiency and slow down work • But generally it is said to increase employee satisfaction and commitment • Enlargement horizontally loads the job

12. Job rotation and job enlargement • These were the popular methods of job design in the 1950s and 1960s • They were introduced to take advantage of specialisation of labour form the job engineering approaches and also to reduce some of the negative effects these engineered job have on employee satisfaction and performance

13. Job rotation • Job rotation was said to: • Reduce accidents • Reduce incidents of repetitive strains injury • Enable employees to be more flexible and cover for someone who is absent • For supervisors who are promoted from below the ranks, they would know more about the entire job operation

14. Job enrichment • It adds depth to the job - more control, responsibility, and discretion to how the job is performed. • Gives higher order needs to the employee, as opposed to job enlargement which simply gives more variety. The chart below (Cunningham & Eberle, 1990) illustrates the differences:

15. Job enrichment and job enlargement _ Higher Order | Job | Enrichment | Enrichment and | | | | Enlargement | Accent on |_______________|_______________|_______________|_______________| Needs | | | Routine | Job | | Job | Enlargement | | | | Lower | | | Order |_______________|_______________|_______________|_______________| Few Many Variety of Tasks

16. Job enrichment • Represents an extension of job rotation and job enlargement • The assumptions that in order to motivate person, the job must be designed to provide opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and growth • This would require to ‘enrich the job” so that all these factors are presents

17. Job enrichment includes designing jobs that include: • Greater variety of work content • Require a higher level of knowledge and skills • Give workers autonomy and responsibility in terms of planning, directing, and controlling their own performance • Proving the opportunity for personal growth and meaningful work experience • Enrichment vertically loads the job – not necessity more tasks but more responsibility and accountability

18. Designing Job Depth: Job Enrichment • Managers can provide employees with greater opportunities to exercise discretion by making the following changes: • Direct feedback • New learning • Scheduling • Uniqueness • Control over resources • Personal accountability

19. Benefits of an enriched jobs Effects of job enrichment • Fewer employee errors • Less employee overload • More employee creativity • Growth of the individual • Individuals have better job satisfaction • Self-actualization of the individual

20. Better employee performance for the organization • Organization gets intrinsically motivated employees • Less absenteeism, turnover, and grievances for the organization • Full use of human resources for society • Society gains more effective organizations

21. Criticism of job enrichment • Management might not know when and why the failures occur • Many employees prefer an old familiar job to an enriched job and employees are resistance to change • Some employees enjoy the current pattern of on the job socialization and friendship more than they do increased responsibility and autonomy

22. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham Model • Hackman and Oldham (1975) identified a model on the relationship between certain job characteristics (job scope) and employee motivation • The model recognizes that certain job characteristics contribute to certain psychological state and that the strength of employees’ needs for growth has an important moderating effect

23. Hackman and Oldham model – core characteristics • Skill variety: • The extent to which the job requires the employee to draw form a number of different skills and abilities as well as on a range of knowledge • Task identity: • Whether the job has an identifiable beginning and end. How complete a module of work does the employee perform

24. Task significance: • The importance of the task. It involves the internal significance – how important is the task to the organisation? And the external significance – how proud are the employee to tell relatives, friends what they do where they work • Autonomy: • Refers to job independence. How much freedom and control do employees have, for their schedule of work, decisions, determining the means to accomplish objectives

25. Feedback: • Refers to objective information about progress and performance and can come form the job itself or form supervisors or an information system

26. Critical Psychological States • These can be summarized as follows: • Meaningfulness: This cognitive state involves the degree to which employee perceive their work as making a values contribution, as being important and worthwhile • skill variety • Task identity • Task significance

27. Responsibility: this state is concerned with the extent to which employees feel a sense of being personally responsible or accountable for the work being done/outcomes • Autonomy • Knowledge for results: Coming directly from the feedback, it involves the degree to which employees understand how they are performing in the job • Feedback

28. Internal reward and job characteristics • The more these three psychological states are present in a job characteristics, the more employees will feel good about themselves when they perform well • Internal rewards re obtained by an individual when her learns (knowledge of results) that he personally (experience responsibility) has performed well on a task that he cares about (experience meaningfulness)

29. Internal reward and job characteristics (cont…) • These internal rewards are reinforcing to employees and cause them to perform well • If they do not perform well, they will try harder in order to get internal rewards that good performance brings • Thus it result to a self-perpetuating cycle of positive work motivation powered by self generated rewards • This cycle will continue until one or more of the psychological states is no longer present or until the individual no longer values the internal reward that derive form good performance

30. The Job Characteristics Model Personal and Work Outcomes Job Characteristics Critical Psychological States Experienced Meaningfulness of Work Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance High Internal Work Motivation High-quality Work Performance High Satisfaction with Work Low Absenteeism and Turnover Experienced Responsibility for Outcomes of Work Autonomy Knowledge of Actual Results of Work Activities Feedback Employee’s Growth Need Strength

31. Example of a surgeon/blue collar job worker • Surgeon must draw on a wide variety of skills and abilities • Can readily identify the tasks because they handle patients form beginning to end • The job has a life threatening significance • There is great deal of autonomy – surgeons have the final word • There is clear dirt feedback during the operation itself and during and after recovery • Hence the high motivation

32. Blue collar • All five characteristics would be relatively minimal or non existence in the perception of such job holders and thus can help explain the motivations problems with these low level jobs • To conclude, in this model, it is the job design not just the person holding the job which can be used to explain the motivation to perform

33. Steps that management can take to increase core job dimensions: • Combining task elements • Assigning whole pieces of work (i.e., work modules) • Allowing discretion in selection of work methods • Permitting self-paced control • Opening feedback channels

34. Guidelines For Redesigning Jobs • For each core job characteristics, specific guidelines have been suggested for redesigning jobs

35. Guidelines For Redesigning Jobs (Cont…) • Skill variety • Task identity • Provide cross training • Expand duties requiring more skills • Give projects a deadline for completion • Form self contained work modules

36. Guidelines For Redesigning Jobs (Cont…) • Task significance • autonomy • Communicate importance of the job • Enhance image of the organisation • Empower to make decisions • Give more responsibility and accountability

37. Guidelines For Redesigning Jobs (Cont…) • feedback • Implement information systems • Supervisors give object, immediate information on how the employee is doing

38. QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

39. Quality of Work Life (QWL) is a philosophy, a set of principles, which holds that people are the most important resource in the organization as they are trustworthy, responsible and capable of making valuable contribution and they should be treated with dignity and respect especially because they are capable of making a valuable contribution to the organization

40. Quality of work life is defined by Lawler (1973) as the employee perceptions of their physical and mental well being at work. These perceptions can be favourable or unfavourable.

41. The elements that are relevant to an individual’s quality of work life include: • The task, • The physical work environment, • Social environment within the organization, • Administrative system • Relationship between life on and off the job • opportunities for active involvement in group working arrangements or problem solving that are of mutual benefit to employees or employers

42. People also conceive of QWL as a set of methods, such as autonomous work groups, job enrichment, high-involvement aimed at boosting the satisfaction and productivity of workers.

43. Quality of work life (QWL) • The Quality of Work life (QWL) perspective does not advocate one particular job design technique • QWL is more concerned with the overall work climate or culture • social technical approach to job design • It is describes as a concern about the impact of work on people and organizational effectiveness combined with an emphasis on participation in problem solving and decision making

44. Quality of working life has been identified by researchers to have the following components:

45. Mirvis and Lawler (1984)) suggested that Quality of working life was associated: • With satisfaction with wages, • Hours and working conditions, • Safe work environment, • Equitable wages, • Equal employment opportunities • Opportunities for advancement.

46. Baba and Jamal (1991) listed what they described as typical indicators of quality of working life, including: • Job satisfaction, • Job involvement, • Work role ambiguity, • Work role conflict, • Work role overload, • Job stress, • Organizational commitment

47. Purpose of QWL programme is to change and improve the work climate so that the interface of people, technology and the organisation makes for more favourable work experience and desired outcomes

48. GOAL SETTING

49. Meaning • A goal is a target that an individual or group of individuals seek to accomplish at work • Goal achievement is a factor that influences the success level of individuals employees, departments and business units and the overall organisation • Goal setting is the process of motivating employ establishing effective and meaningful performance targets

50. Theoretical background of goal setting • Can be traced back to the scientific management theory of Fredrick Taylor when he talked of setting the standards of performance • Edward Tolman cognitive theory also talked of importance of values and consequences to influence behaviour • The most documented theory of goal setting is by Edwin Locke (1968)