Cohesion (and a bit of coherence....)

Cohesion (and a bit of coherence....) • A systematic overview (following Sara Thorne Mastering Advanced English Language)

The hierarchal structure of language • We can rank language into a meaningful hierarchy, • in which each of the elements are related in terms of form and meaning.

So what is the “internal gravity” of this system?

And what is “discourse”? • “Spoken or written language that is longer than a sentence in length”

And how are the elements in discourse held together? • In other words, how is cohesion achieved? • There are five forms of cohesion: • 1. Lexical cohesion 2. Substitution • 3. Ellipsis 4. Referencing • 5. Linking Adverbs and Conjunctions

And why is this useful? • You may well be asked to identify and explain how cohesion is achieved. • A knowledge of the elements of cohesion will also help you greatly with your language analysis. • Cohesion involves an overview of many aspects of linguistics. • Cohesion is closely related to another key concept: coherence.

Lexical Cohesion • Is a kind of textual linking based on an author’s choice of words. • 1. Collocations. These are words which usually go together within phrases. They are often well-known and predictable. For example: • high and... • dry • safe and... • sound

Collocations may include idioms, clichés, sayings, and proverbs. • 2. Repetition. In repetition words are either directly repeated, or synonyms are used. • 3. Superordinates and hyponyms. Superordinates are general words, and hyponyms are subdivisions of the general category.

4. Semantic Field. Lexemes which form part of the same semantic field/ jargon have a greater degree of cohesion. • Warne bowls another leg-break to Gatting. The ball passes through to the wicket keeper. He asks Ponting for another adjustment to his field, and Watson comes in to leg slip.

Substitution • With substitution, one linguistic item is replaced by a shorter one. This will normally happen in the second clause so that the meaning is clear. • In noun phrases, personal pronouns can be used as substitutes (but they only add cohesion if the meaning is clear). • Joseph loves toy trains and he has two of them.

Substitution can also be performed by the indefinite pronouns one or some or even “the same”. • Would you like some/ a coffee? • I’d love some/ one. • And I’ll have the same.

Superordinates and hyponyms can also be substitutes. • The alsatian was ferocious, and the child was clearly afraid of the dog.

Substitution of Verb Phrases • A verb phrase can be substituted by the auxiliary verb “do”. • Julie likes swimming, and Mark does too.

Substitution of Clauses • Positive clauses can be substituted by “so”. • Is it going to be sunny today? They say so. • Negative clauses can be substituted by “not”. • I wonder if I need to buy a new ticket? The driver said not.

Ellipsis • In Ellipsis, part of a sentence is left out. If the sentence is to remain meaningful, it must be clear what the omitted words are. • The road was long and winding and (-) stretched on for miles. (Noun phrase omitted.) • The children ate jelly cakes and the adults (-) cheese cake. (Verb phrase omitted.) • Who was playing guitar last night? Beau (-). (Whole clause omitted.) • But how does leaving things out actually make a discourse more coherent?

Referencing • References point to something else in the discourse. By their very nature they create cohesion. • Pronouns are often used to make these references, but so too are comparative structures.

There are three main types of references: • 1. Anaphoric references These point backwards in a text. The reader of listening must look/ think back to the previous noun phrase to make sense of the pronoun or comparative structure used. • The boy broke the window and then he ran away.

2. Cataphoric References These point forwards in a text. • This was the life- lying in the sun and drinking champagne. • 3. Exophoric References These require the reader or listener to make a connection with something outside the discourse. • That boat over there is mine. • In many cases these will rely on gesture or implied contextual knowledge.

Linking Adverbs or Conjunctions • 1. Additive Adverbs and Conjunctions These add on information, possibly as an afterthought: • and, furthermore, besides, incidentally, in that regard • 2. Adversative Adverbs and Conjunctions These help to create a contrast between the sentence they introduce and the previous sentence: • yet, however, nonetheless, by contrast, on the contrary

3. Causal Adverbs and Conjunctions These link two clauses or sentences by suggesting that one has been the result of the other: • because, since, therefore, as a result, thus • 4. Temporal Adverbs and Conjuntions These create a link in time between clauses or sentences: • before, while, then, after, at that moment, meanwhile

And if that last bit is too much to remember? • Just have a close look at the adverbs and conjunctions and describe how they add cohesion to the discourse. • Do they add cohesion in terms of causal, temporal, contrasting, or additional detail?

cohesion and coherence • Cohesion is largely concerned with the linguistic structures which build and increase connections between words and sentences. • Coherence is largely concerned with the semantic connections within a text which build meaning. • Therefore, coherence operates on a larger scale than cohesion.

So how can “semantic Connectioins” be made? • By staying “on topic” (or relevant) • By presenting events in a logical order (and often this is a logical chronological order)

By remaining internally consistent (ie within the text) in the presentation of information. • By signalling changes in direction or point of view. • Through inference. When the participants, events, and relationships are all relevant to each other, plausible inferences about the text’s meaning can be made. • Sometimes authors make deliberate use of this need to infer meaning.

Tommo looked up; Dadda talk to him? Dadda was not, and Andrew’s cupped palm guided the boy’s skull back down into the book as the woman stood up, crossed the room without – evidently – hearing, going out with her arms full of strangled washing. The bucket she left for him to carry. ‘Shoosh,’ he said, when their woman had gone.

‘Wad?’ • ‘Hear mum?’ Andrew heard her step from the porch. • ‘Hear her?’ • ‘Nup.’ • ‘No, I think you’re right. It’s the breeze in the ceiling. Bloody draughty huts.’ His wife sometimes hummed as she worked. • ‘Wad’s dwaughty?’ • ‘Draughty.’

Tommo lay there. • ‘Draughty. Say it.’ • ‘Don’t wanna.’ • ‘Wan mum to read me story,’ Tommo said. • ‘Four more pages.’ • The boy heard him out, let him stand and move away from the bed after the last kiss. He said, ‘Wanna kiss mum goodnight.’ • ‘You did that before, Sonny Jim.’ • ‘Kiss momma.’ • ‘You there, Sal?’ • Barry Hill 1990, ‘Gates’ in Personal Best, (ed.) Garry Disher

Source: Barry Hill 1990 “Gates” in Personal Best, (ed.) Garry Disher • Can you seen now why we place such emphasis on structure in your writing?

Cohesion (and a bit of coherence....)