PYA3 Research Methods

1. PYA3 Research Methods Non Experimental Techniques

2. Non-Experimental Techniques BATs Be able to describe the different types of non-experimental techniques in Psychological research. Identify different techniques in research studies learned so far Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each type of technique Interpret data from a correlational analysis

3. Types of Research Methods • Investigations using correlational analysis. • Naturalistic observations • Questionnaires • Interviews • Case Studies • Content analysis

4. Types of Experiment You will need to know: • how and when each type of non- experiment is used. • the strengths and weaknesses of each research method • The ethical issues raised when each type of research is carried out.

5. Non-Experimental Techniques Choose one Non-experimental technique from the list below: Naturalistic Observation p86/88 Questionnaire Survey p91/93 Interview p94/95 Correlational Analysis p84/5 Case Studies p97/99 Content analysis p124/5 Use your text book to find out: 1. Uses of this type of research 2. Its strengths and weaknesses. 3. Examples 4. Ethical Issues You will share your findings with the rest of the class/group

6. Non-Experimental Techniques Now go round the other groups to fill in the rest of your sheet

7. Correlational Analysis • A technique that shows whether or not 2 variables are associated. • Correlations are presented as • a scattergram • A correlation coefficient – ranges from -1 to +1 (tells you the strength of the correlation) -1 = strong negative correlation +1= strong positive correlation

8. Scattergrams A Look at these graphs. Which is the positive, negative or no correlation? C B

9. Advantages Can be done when experiment would be impractical or unethical Relationships between naturally occurring variables are possible – can indicate trends for investigation in future research Disadvantages Tell you nothing about cause – even if things are highly correlated it doesn’t mean one causes the other Cannot infer cause from correlations – chance or extraneous variables may cause the relationship Hard to control variables Pros and Cons of Correlations

10. Hypotheses in Correlational Studies • More correct to use the term alternative hypothesis as not an experiment. • Non-Directional hypothesis = There will be a relationship between age and intelligence • Directional– there will be a positive correlation between age and intelligence or as age increases intelligence increases • Null hypothesis– any relationship between variable x and variable y is due to chance

11. Try out a Correlational Analysis • Aim: To find out if there is a correlation between exam stress score and exam confidence score • Write an ALTERNATIVE operationalised hypothesis. • Use the worksheets to help you collect data

12. Applying this to your data! • Create a scattergramfor your data • Use Excel to calculate the correlation coefficient of the data. • Was there a correlation between the 2 variables? • See next slide or worksheet for instructions on how to calculate Correlation coefficient using Excel

13. Activity 12 Playing with correlation: the Excel method • Using Excel, you can enter and alter pairs of numbers to see how this affects a scattergraph and correlation coefficient. Both are produced automatically by Excel if you follow these steps: • 1. Open a new document (select <file> <new> <blank workbook>). • 2. Select <insert> <chart> <XY (scatter)> and press <next>. • 3. Place the cursor at the very top left of the page; click and drag across 2 rows and then down 16 rows. Press <next> <next> <finish>. • 4. Now enter pairs of scores in rows 2–16 (these can be invented or you could try entering a real set of numbers to see if they are correlated – such as height and shoe size). Do not enter data in the top row. • 5. To calculate the correlation coefficient: Place the cursor in any empty box. Select <insert> <function>. In the top box, type ‘correl’ and press ‘go’ and then <OK>. • 6. The screen now says ‘array1’ and ‘array2’. Click in ‘array1’ and then move the cursor to the top of the first column of your numbers; then click and drag to the bottom of the column. Do the same for array2. • 7. Try changing some of the numbers and see how this alters your scattergraph and correlation coefficient. • Or see p 124 of Exploring Psychology Acknowledgements to Cara Flanagan, Research Methods text p48

14. Observations What do the following terms mean? • Naturalistic observation • Controlled observation • Disclosed (overt) observation • Non-disclosed (covert) observation • Participant observation • Non-participant observation Find an example of each in the text (p86 -88 may help)

15. Observations Using Behavioural Categories • Impossible to record all behaviours in an observation • Researchers decide which specific behaviours will be the focus of the observation • Behavioural Categories operationalised (measurable) and clearly defined so that all observers record same info. (improves inter-observer reliability)

16. Coding systems, categories and rating scales Uses • Observational studies • Content analysis What are they? A code is invented to represent each category of behaviour Sometimes a list of behaviours is rated by the observer on a rating scale Why used? • To prevent observer bias and improve inter-observer reliability (cuts down differences between observers)

17. Examples of coding systems Facial Action Coding System Early Child Environment Rating Scale Observers rates each item on a 7 point scale from inadequate to excellent

18. Observations Using Behavioural Categories • What categories were used by Ainsworth and Wittig in 1969 for the ‘Strange Situation’? See p89 for help • Read p 89-90 and try the ‘Thinking creatively about Psychology’ task on p90 • Try it out!! • During break you will conduct a simple observation!

19. Activity 17 Making systematic observations • The coding system below is adapted from one used by Fick (1993) in a study looking at the effects of having a dog as a pet on the nature and frequency of social interactions in nursing home residents. • You can use this shortened version to make observations of other students in a common room or cafeteria. Shortened coding system: • Non-attentive behaviour: Participant is not engaged in group activity. • Attentive listening: Participant maintains eye contact with other group members. • Verbal interaction with another person: Participant initiates or responds verbally to another person. • Non-verbal interaction with another person: Participant touches, gestures, smiles, nods, etc. to another person • 1. Decide on your research aims; e.g. you could compare the differences in social interactions between boys and girls in the sixth form common room or in the canteen. • 2. State your hypothesis. • 3. Draw up a grid to record your observations. • 4. Decide on a sampling procedure.

20. Content analysis – DIY! Try one of these 2 content analysis tasks • Lonely Hearts Adverts • Gender bias in toy sales In your group: Choose a coding system/checklist to gather data Display your findings in a graph and write a conclusion

21. Homework • Finish your content analysis. • Mind map or create a revision summary of the strengths and weaknesses of different experimental/non-experimental techniques