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Title page. Map of lichen use. 2. Lichens as dye. 3. Photos by S. Sharnoff. Lichens as medicine. 4. Peltigera canina Cure for rabies. Lobaria pulmonaria For lung ailments. Usnea longissima Antibiotic. Photos by Stephen Sharnoff. Lichens as decoration. 5. Photo by S. Sharnoff.

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  1. Title page

  2. Map of lichen use 2

  3. Lichens as dye 3 Photos by S. Sharnoff

  4. Lichens as medicine 4 • Peltigera canina • Cure for rabies • Lobaria pulmonaria • For lung ailments • Usnea longissima • Antibiotic Photos by Stephen Sharnoff

  5. Lichens as decoration 5 Photo by S. Sharnoff Sooke Papua New Guinea Usnea sp. Cladina stellaris

  6. Lichens in cosmetics 6 • Evernia prunastri • Perfumes • Hair powder • Embalming mummies Photo by S. Sharnoff

  7. Lichens as food 7 Photo by S. Sharnoff Over 90 species of lichen traditionally eaten worldwide Always cooked in specific ways • Remove lichen acids • Render lichen digestible? • Lobaria scrobiculata • Eaten raw by Yup’ik

  8. Cooking Lobaria pulmonaria 8 Yoshohito Ohmura (Japan): tasty Lobaria & seaweed soup My recipe: Norstictic acid (bitter red dye) removed with baking soda

  9. Usnea sp. 9 • Fuji saruogase • U. trichodeoides • Tastes good • Yokowa saruogase • Usnea diffracta • Tastes bad Chili con Usnea Prepared by Mr. Sato (Japan)

  10. Rock Tripe (Umbilicaria spp.) 10 Eaten in eastern and northern Canada: • Boiled several times, eaten in soup, or with fish roe Also eaten by early European explorers: • Minimal preparation and limited nutrition Photo by Stephen Sharnoff Photos by Y. Ohmura • Iwa-take • (Umbilicaria esculenta) • Delicacy in Japan ($100/lb) • Deep fried, pickled, in soups, etc.

  11. Cetraria islandica 11 • Was important food in Europe • Soaked in ash water, boiled, rinsed, dried, ground, mixed with flour, then cooked • Bread, pudding, desserts Photo by S. Sharnoff • Sweden, 1868: • Pamphlet distributed to teach poor people to eat lichen

  12. Bryoria fremontii 12 Photo by S. Sharnoff Alectoria jubata (out-dated name) Black moss (English layperson) Black tree lichen (ethnobotanists) Edible horsehair lichen (lichenologists) Wila (Secwepemc) /wí7e (Nlaka’pmx) A.wi’.a (Stl’atl’imc) Skwelíp (Okanagan) Sqwelíp (Halkomelem) Sáw"-t-m=qn (Spokane) Sä’tc’Etct (Schitsu’umsh) Caúmtemkan or st’telu (Flathead) Ä'ttla or emgo'tlna (Ktunaxa) Ik!u'nuc (Ila’xluit) Kw”u’nch (Sahaptin) Wa-kamwa (Tenino) /ho.póp/ (Nimi’ipuu) Teh-ra (Dakelh) Qa’l (Modoc) Whyelkine(Tsimshian?) Dehtsighu (Inland Dena’ina) Nakuraartum nuyii (Sugpiaq)

  13. Bryoria use map 1 13 Ranges of lichen species Edible lichen Bryoria fremontii

  14. Bryoria use map 2 14 Ranges of lichen species Edible lichen Bryoria fremontii Both edible and toxic lichen species Toxic lichen Bryoria tortuosa

  15. Bryoria use map 3 15 Ranges of lichen species Edible lichen Bryoria fremontii Both edible and toxic lichen species Toxic lichen Bryoria tortuosa Use by people Important food

  16. Bryoria use map 4 16 Ranges of lichen species Edible lichen Bryoria fremontii Both edible and toxic lichen species Toxic lichen Bryoria tortuosa Use by people Important food Minor food

  17. Bryoria use map 5 17 Ranges of lichen species Edible lichen Bryoria fremontii Both edible and toxic lichen species Toxic lichen Bryoria tortuosa Use by people Important food Minor food Unconfirmed food

  18. Bryoria use map 6 18 Ranges of lichen species Edible lichen Bryoria fremontii Both edible and toxic lichen species Toxic lichen Bryoria tortuosa Use by people Important food Minor food Unconfirmed food Other use

  19. Miscellaneous uses of Bryoria 19 Photo by Subiyay Photo by Nancy Turner Photo by Dorothy Kennedy

  20. Eating Bryoria fremontii 20 Photo by Dorothy Kennedy Avoiding bitter and toxic lichens 1. Collect from areas identified to have good lichen 2. Thoroughly clean lichen (soak, rinse, beat, scrub)

  21. Eating Bryoria fremontii 21 Pit cook procedure used in: BC: Dakehl, Ktunaxa, Secwepemc, St’at’imc, Nlaka’pamux, Okanagan Washington: Okanagan, Spokane Idaho: Schitsu’umsh Montana: Flathead Oregon: Ila’xluit, Sahaptin 1. Dig a large pit 2. Heat up rocks in fire

  22. Eating Bryoria fremontii 22 Pit Cook Procedure 3. Cover hot rocks with dirt 4. Insert stick into dirt 5. Cover dirt with wet vegetation 6. Add well cleaned lichen 7. Add layer of root vegetable (yellow avalanche lily, wild onion, camas)

  23. Eating Bryoria fremontii 23 Pit Cook Procedure 8. Cover lichen with wet vegetation 9. Cover with dirt 10. Pull out stick 11. Pour in water 12. Cover hole 13. Let sit for 12 h to 3 days

  24. The final product 24 Two questions: What nutritional value does the lichen have? How are toxic/bitter Bryoria spp. avoided?

  25. Selecting edible lichen 25 Photo by S. Sharnoff Photo by S. Sharnoff Photo by S. Sharnoff A variety of similar-looking species to avoid Bryoria fremontii Wila Edible lichen Bryoria tortuosa Toxic vulpinic acid B. pseudofuscescens Tqwesimáka7 Bitter lichen compounds

  26. Fremontii - tortuosa continuum 26

  27. Identifying the right lichen 27 Start by looking in the right place: • Location • Tree species Bring samples to grandma, and she identifies by: • Taste • Appearance

  28. A simple study on collecting Bryoria 28 • Bryoria spp. collected from 80 trees at 8 locations • Used likely collection sites within Secwepemc territory • Bryoria species composition identified for each sample • Some samples shown to Mary Thomas to determine suitability for eating

  29. Different sites have characteristic Bryoria communities 29 • Kruskal-Wallis test • Variation between sites greater than variation within sites

  30. The abundances of certain Bryoria morphotypes are correlated with each other 30 Principal Component Analysis

  31. The abundances of certain Bryoria morphotypes are correlated with each other 31 • Principal Component Analysis • Kendall’s W • Several concordant groups • Spearman test • B. implexae negatively correlated with B. fremontii

  32. Asking an expert 32 • Light-coloured or yellowish • lichen is not good for eating • Avoided: • B. implexae • Yellow B. tortuosa • Preferred: • Dark B. fremontii Dr. Mary Thomas

  33. Asking an expert 33 • Light-coloured or yellowish • lichen is not good for eating • Avoided: • B. implexae = less B. fremontii • Yellow B. tortuosa = more brown B. tortuosa • Preferred: • Dark B. fremontii = more light B. fremontii • A simple way to select edible lichen! Dr. Mary Thomas

  34. The nutritional value of Bryoria fremontii 34 Protein: 4–8% Fat: Minimal Vitamins: B9, B12, E, and choline in some lichens, but not Bryoria Minerals: Ca and Fe in some lichens, but not Bryoria Carbohydrate: 20-30%, but is it useful?

  35. Lichen and Plant Polysaccharides Cellulose (Plant cell walls) -(1-4)-D-glucan n = lots Amylose (Plant starch) -(1-4)-D-glucan n = 250 to 5,000 Isolichenin (Lichen starch) -(1-3)(1-4)-D-glucan n = 40 to 50 Lichenin (Lichen starch) -(1-3)(1-4)-D-glucan n = 60 to 70

  36. Eating indigestible carbohydrates 36 Inulin (in camas) Indigestible to humans Lichenin (in Bryoria)

  37. Eating indigestible carbohydrates 37 Inulin (in camas) Heat Acidity Time Lichenin (in Bryoria)

  38. Eating indigestible carbohydrates 38 Digestible simple carbohydrates

  39. Important aspects of a pitcook 39 [ ] ( ) ( ) r - d r + d (e-a2- e-b2)·2·h·t0.5 xt= s + · erf + erf + 2·h·t0.5 2·h·t0.5 d·0.5 r - d r - d a = b = r - s 2ht0.5 2ht0.5 2 ±1∓x  = 2ht0.5 Temperature: ??? A theoretical model for heat flux in a pit cook Variables t = time r = initial temperature of hot rock s = initial temperature of soil d = distance from hot rock r = radius of hot rock h2 = thermal diffusivity erf = 2-0.50e-2d

  40. Important aspects of a pitcook 40 Temperature: ??? • Peacock’s pitcook • British Columbia, 1998 • Good fit with the • temperature model

  41. Important aspects of a pitcook 41 Temperature: ??? • Peacock’s pitcook • British Columbia, 1998 • Good fit with the • temperature model • Pagoulatos’ pitcook • Texas, 2005 • Really hot rocks • Does not match model

  42. Important aspects of a pitcook 42 Temperature: Food maintained at 100ºC, then cools • Peacock’s pitcook • British Columbia, 1998 • Good fit with the • temperature model • Pagoulatos’ pitcook • Water maintains food at a stable thermal maximum • Higher boiling point?

  43. Important aspects of a pitcook 43 Temperature: Food maintained at 100ºC, then coolsAcidity: ??? Potential sources of acidity Soil: As low as pH 5.0 Vegetation: Conifer 4.0, broad leaf 5.5 Root veggies: Usually 4.9–5.6 Fruit: As low as 3.0

  44. Important aspects of a pitcook 44 Temperature: Food maintained at 100ºC, then coolsAcidity: Probably above pH 4, possibly as low as 3 Potential sources of acidity Soil: As low as pH 5.0 Vegetation: Conifer 4.0, broad leaf 5.5 Root veggies: Usually 4.9–5.6 Fruit: As low as 3.0

  45. Important aspects of a pitcook 45 Temperature: Food maintained at 100ºC, then coolsAcidity: Probably above pH 4, possibly as low as 3Duration: Left for 12 h to 3 days, time at stable thermal maximum depends on rock temperature

  46. Testing the effects of pit cookingReal vs. artificial 46 • Faster and easier • More replicates • More control • Higher consistency • Better to test specific factors • The real thing • More representative of reality?

  47. Pitcooking in the kitchen 47

  48. A pit cooking experiment 48 Black tree lichen Camas Two kinds of food

  49. A pit cooking experiment 49 Black tree lichen Camas Three different treatments • Time • 6 to 34 hours • Acidity • pH 7, 5, and 3 • Synergy • Cooked together or separate

  50. What happened to the food 50 when cooked separately Lichen Camas Glucose • Glucose does not increase with cooking time or acidity • Not much glucose

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