Individualistic Explanations of Crime

1. Individualistic Explanations of Crime Chapter 2

2. Why some of us do it? Why don’t we all do it? Seeks an understanding of variation in the criminal behaviour of individuals Understanding why some people are more in to it than others Understanding how level of involvement may vary over time, situations, & circumstances Seeks a theoretical, research-based and practical understanding

3. Why some of us do it? Why don’t we all do it? Social location theories Psychopathology Personal distress Criminal motivations (cause crime) Weak controls (cause crime) It’s in our genes

4. Why some of us do it? Why don’t we all do it? Victimization turns victims into offenders Patriarchy/Capitalism/A decadent society Being labelled a “criminal” The devil made me do it Your very own favourite theory……….

5. Psychological Definition Does not exist per se Experts attempt to identify psychological factors Early trauma Ways of learning Urge to commit acts for pleasure or excitement Personality disorders

6. Biological Factors and Crime “nature” view Actual makeup and individual psychology Crime is product of heredity Reductionist & deterministic “bad seed” or “biology is destiny” Implies heredity can make criminal behaviour unavoidable and inevitable for some individuals Several theories place cause of criminality firmly with the individual, physical appearance and playing down the role of social factors

7. Phrenology Franz Gall Shapes & bumps reveal a person’s character and mental capacity Each section of brain was responsible for a different aspect of human functioning External examinations

9. Phrenology’s Main Propositions • The brain is the organ of the mind • The brain is the aggregation of about 30 separate organs or faculties that function independently • The more active an organ, the larger its size • The relative size of the organs can be estimated by inspecting contours of the skull • The relative size of the organs can be increased or decreased through exercise and self-discipline • Suggests different gradations in severity of behaviour and that people can change

10. Cesare Lombroso: The Criminal Gene ATAVISM (criminals represented a savage, earlier form of mankind; not fully developed) Argued that criminals were genetically different from non-criminals Behaviour is expression of inferior desires & decision-making Could tell criminals by physical features Asymmetrical skull; narrow, sloping brow Flattened or crooked nose; prominent jaw Large ears; high cheekbones; fat lips Extra toes or fingers

11. The Criminal Gene? Not influential in study of deviance but introduced the idea of causes beyond an individual’s control – criminals born into their behavioural pattern (challenged classical doctrine of punishment deterring crime) Suggests humans are ready made & not much hope of change Work was methodologically sloppy & biased (craniometry & anthropometry to measure bodies & categorize them into types that were linked to behaviour) Interested in statistics

12. Constitutional Theories Physique and Crime William Sheldon concluded that a relationship existed between one’s body type (somatotyping) and personality Suggested 3 body types Ectomorphs; endomorphs; mesomorphs

13. Somatotyping

14. Constitutional Theories: Physique and Crime Endomorphs – soft, round, fun loving, relaxed and sociable Mesomorphs – muscular, athletic, active, bold, adventurous & aggressive Ectomorphs – tall, thin, well developed brain, introverted, overly sensitive, restrained, and nervous

15. Are juvenile delinquents classified as mesomorphs more predisposed to a life of crime? Do law enforcement officials hold a negative view of mesomorphs that could possibly influence the way they are dealt with (i.e. are they ‘picked on’ more)? The Link between Mesomorphy and Delinquency

16. Attractiveness or Unattractiveness Facial characteristics can present a significant advantage across situations and experiences Attractiveness or ‘babyfaceness’ – crime connection? Minor physical anomalies (MPAs) (correlation?) asymmetrical ears; webbed toes; widely spaced eyes

17. Genetics & Antisocial Behaviour Examines the role of heredity and environment, or “nature and nurture” in development. Family studies; Twin and adoption studies Methodological problems; contrasting findings Influence behaviour indirectly

18. Some evidence for: Identical twins being more likely to exhibit similar patterns of criminal behavior than fraternal twins Adopted children exhibiting similar patterns of delinquency to their biological parents, rather than their adopted parents Problem is that we cannot directly observe influence of heredity (genes) so need methodology to disentangle relative influence of heredity versus environment Few studies of twins reared apart Twin & Adoption Studies & Influence of Genes

19. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES Chromosomal abnormalities XYY syndrome & more violent behaviour Biochemistry – ANS, allergies, environmental conditions (lead, radiation), diet (food additives, vitamin deficiencies), alcohol. Higher testosterone levels Neurology – brain injuries, conditions of the brain (ADHD); intelligence; temperament EEG

20. Psychological Theories Range of explanations Within the individual to how a person makes sense of and deals with the world Psychoanalytic: Freud Concerned with causes for behaviour where no physical or chemical reason could be determined Every mental process had a meaning – drives or impulses that propel actions compel person to do things to satisfy impulse Immediate gratification Sublimation (acting out) Attachment theory (maternal deprivation) Means of satisfying impulses become more sophisticated & socially acceptable

21. Defining Personality & Traits Personality: a person’s general style of interacting with the world Trait: a characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking and feeling

22. Eysenck’s Theory of Personality & Crime Interaction between environment and individual nervous system(determined by physiology of brains) Descendant of Lombroso’s theory Certain personality types were predetermined to be inclined towards crime Extraverted personality = low cortical arousal = need to energize their brain with excitement (stealing) Introverted personality = high cortical arousal = less likely to be involved in crime Problem is assumption that categories are stable traits (ignores social structure & context in which action takes place)

23. Eysenck’s Model of Personality

24. Extraversion-Introversion Dimension Introversion Retiring (shy) Reserved (quite) Likes solitary activities Does not attend parties More reactive to external stimuli Lower pain tolerance More easily conditioned Most people fall within the middle - ambiversion Extraversion Outgoing & talkative Wants many friends Enjoys parties Dislikes solitary activities Dominates social situations Sensation seeking Restless in boring situations

25. Neuroticism Dimension Ranges from normal, fairly calm & collected Autonomic arousal – “activation” Problem with sympathetic hyperactivity Reacts intensely to stress (overreact) Sensitive limbic systems Moody; touchy; sensitive to put downs; anxious; complainer Criminal behaviour associated with neurotic extraverts (driven)

26. Psychoticism Dimension No proposed neurophysiological mechanism Similar to psychopathy a certain recklessness a disregard for common sense or conventions a degree in inappropriate emotional expression “tough mindedness” – temperament or character? aggressive, cold and impersonal behaviour, disregard for danger, troublesome behaviour, dislike of others, attraction to the unusual associated with criminal tendencies (hostility)

27. Evidence for Eysenck’s Theory Highly influential Relationship between neuroticism and antisocial behaviour: not fully supported Extraversion: inconsistent results; no strong support Psychoticism: some support, little research

28. Cognition and Crime Cognitive styles in general How people individuals think about people and their actions Different cognitive styles? Concrete thinking, failure to empathize with others; lack of trust; irresponsible decision-making, victim-role

29. Cognition and Crime • Locus of control • Internal locus of control • External locus of control

30. Cognition and Crime • Attributional Processes • Hostile attribution bias • Interpret others’ actions as hostile • Lack of empathy (own perspective) • Social skills training • Restorative justice model • Neutralization • Excuses or rationalizations • Poverty, denial of injury, denial of victim, appeal to higher loyalties

31. Techniques of Neutralization Deny responsibility Deny injury Deny victim Condemn condemners Appeal to higher loyalty “I had to do it.” “I had no choice.” “They have insurance. “ “What’s 1 CD to a store like Wal Mart?” “They had it coming.” “ She shouldn’t have talked back to me.” “Everyone is on the take.” “Only cowards back down.” “I have to feed my family.”

32. Cognition and Crime • Self-control • Impulsive • Problem-solving and decision-making • Opposing views • Cognitive scripts • Script – how people should behave in certain situations (inner narrative)

33. Cognition and Crime Moral Development - Kohlberg Level 1:Pre-conventional Stage1: Punishment and obedience orientation Stage 2: Individualism and purpose Level 2: Conventional Stage 1: Good boy/girl orientation Stage 2: Society – maintaing orientation Level 3: Post-conventional Stage 1: Community rights vs. personal rights Stage 2: Universal ethical principle orientation

34. Cognition and Crime • Behaviour is result of individual, internal factors • E.g., issue of poverty • Not concerned with why higher rate of crime in groups who are poor • Focus on causes such as lower intelligence scores • Standard research methods - statistical

35. Summary of Biological Factors and Theories

36. Interaction of Heredity and Environment Remember: neither genetics nor biology “cause” crime Certain biological or genetic elements may predispose some people to commit antisocial acts Individualistic explanations not the whole story