Methods of Comparison

1. Methods of Comparison

2. Direct vs. Inverse Relationships • Direct – If one variable increases, the other variable also increases • Ex.) As education increases, literacy rate increases • Inverse – One variable decreases as another increases • Ex.) As education increases, rate of unemployment decreases

3. Normative vs. Empirical Approaches • Empirical – describes and explains facts and factual relationships • Free from value statements • Ex.) The U.S. has a higher level of economic development than Nigeria. • Normative – deals with what one thinks should be or what ought to be • Usually deals with value statements such as “right” or “wrong”, or “good” or “bad” • Ex.) Nigeria would be better off with more foreign investment.

4. Correlation and Causation • It may rain whenever I wash my car, but washing my car is not the cause of the rain. • This relationship isn’t based on causation, just simply correlation • Correlation – describes a relationship or an association b/w 2 (or more) different variables • Does not necessarily mean that one variable causes the other

5. To establish causality requires a stronger demonstration of a cause-and-effect relationship • This requires analysis and testing

6. Another Example: The correlation between TV viewing and ADHD • Some say that excessive TV viewing causes or at least contributes to the development of ADHD in very young kids • But, others say it might be that kids prone to ADHD are drawn to TV • Thus, TV viewing is not the cause but just a symptom of ADHD

7. Role of Bureaucracies in Modern Nation-States • Bureaucracies = agencies that implement govt. policy • Size and number greatly increased throughout 20th century • Bureaucracies have assumed increasing rule-making powers in most political systems