Foundations of an Imperial style

1. Foundations of an Imperial style 1556-1605

2. Review • Administrative reforms in Akbar’s time extend imperial reach into the countryside • Existing chiefs/Iqtadars are now classified as “zamindars” and given an option to join the new regime • Steps takes to weaken the resources available to rebels • Peasants benefit from some of these reforms (trade and monetization)

4. The Trading Networks • Building of new roads—extension of Grand Trunk Rd. • Abolishment of local tolls and taxes on trade • Faujdars (imperial commanders) charged with keeping peace • New currency regulations lift the value of Mughal coinage • New carvanserais, kos minars, baolis (step wells) built • Riverine systems dredged, port regulations formed, provisions made for the care of foreign travelers Kos minar or distance marker

5. The new Hybrid Imperial Style • Monumental architecture in red sandstone and marble • Stylistic motifs borrowed from indigenous styles—decorative motifs, pavilions, chattris

6. Panch Mahal in Fatehpur Sikri

7. Interpreting Akbar’s designs • An imperial camp in stone?—Timurid roots • An homage to the chisti Sufi designating the Imperial space as sacred (Fatehpur Sikri) • New Architecture reflects new policy of borrowing and mixing Indigenous elements • Reflects an entirely new way of thinking about urban planning and the new domestic space • Can all of these be true?

8. Decorations from the Kacchwa palaces at Amber Compare w/ decorative motifs at Fatehpur Sikri

9. Detail of wall at Fatehpur Sikri

10. Amber: Hindu Temple, Mughal residence?

11. The Imperial Sacred Space • Sheikh Chisti’s tomb in Sikri • Note the serpentine brackets • Mixture of Islamic and indigenous building styles • Ritual use of screens

12. Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri • Radial arrangement of space • Elevated column/throne • Architecture mirroring new policy of Sulh-i Kul?

13. Multiplicity of Motives? • Humayun’s tomb in the new style • The hasht-bihisht symbolism in garden and building • The posthumous titles denoting sacredness • Containing both Timurid and Indigenous themes

14. Hybridity in Other arts • Notice central Asia/Chinese influence in the treatment of rocks • Attention to details of Krishna mythology • Mughal style apparent in the depiction of people—individualized portraits

15. Jahangir, 1605-1627

16. Succession and rule • Akbar designated Salim as successor, but reluctantly—other sons were dead or incapacitated, Salim was rebellious • Khusrau, Jahangir’s eldest son was already favored by many nobles, particularly Rajputs • Sayyids of Barrah, however, were key to ensuring the succession as designated by Akbar (a locally powerful clan of Indian Muslims)

17. Jahangir’s Personality • Struggled to emerge from his fathers’ large shadow—as is evident from the Tuzuk-i Jahangiri • Establishes a reputation as a patron of arts and as one interested in scholarship • Showed an interest in the novel and unexpected more than the routine—hunting, arts, exotica • Good at delegating authority to talented men and women • Addicted to alcohol and opium, but administration runs smoothly in other hands

18. Channeling Akbar’s legacy • Continuation of the Din-i Ilahi and opposition to narrow constructions of Islam • Patronage of Chistis • Persecution of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi • Persecution of the 5th Sikh Guru, Arjan Dev • Patronage of Gossain Jadrup • Continuities and differences with Akbar

19. Visiting the Gossain Ascetic Jadrup

20. An Expanding Empire • Trade continues to grow both overland and by sea • Charters granted to the East India Company • No “price revolution” or silver “inflation” in India comparable to Europe after the opening of new world silver mines • Expanding frontiers in the west and south

21. Prince Khurram and Expansion • Earlier expeditions by Jahangir and other imperial generals were not as successful • Mewar, Kangra, Ahom, Deccan • Khurram emerges as the pre-eminent general in his father’s army • Tactics include the use of checkpoints, expanded siege weaponry, holding hostages, diplomacy • His success leads to eventual tensions with Jahangir

22. Major Campaigns for Khurram • Mewar—1613 • Kangra-1618 • Deccan—1619-1620 including Ahmadnagar, Bijapur Golconda, this war produces a large treasure but also demonstrates the problems encountered in subduing the Deccan

23. Areas Subdued By Khurram Fully Incorporated later Kangra Mewar Ahoms

24. Nur Jahan • Jahangir marries Nur Jahan in 1611 • Father Itmad-ud-Daulah and Brother Asaf Khan quickly rise to level of Wizir • Matrimonial alliances • Niece Mumtaz Mahal marries Khurram • Daughter Ladli Begum marries Shahrayar • Rules as consort as evidence by Coins, seals, official documents, memoirs

25. Problems with Authority in this Period • After 1611 and until 1621, Nur Jahan appears to be central in court affairs • Prince Khurram controls the Army and displays open resentment of his father and later Nur Jahan • Declines transfer to the Deccan • Has to send children as hostage to court • In-laws hold key posts, Asaf Khan supports Khurram • Nobility splits its support, but continues to support Jahangir most of all

26. Jahangir’s Death and Crisis • Problems with security evident in 1626 when Mahabat Khan seizes the Emperor and Nur Jahan • Prince Parvez and Shahrayar emerge as contenders (only due to factions) • Prince Khurram still far away from court when crisis errupts • Persians seize Kandahar • Asaf Khan secures the throne for Khurram