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Learning Approach/Behaviourist Psychology: Definition
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1. AS EDEXCEL PSYCHOLOGY 2008: UNIT 2 The Learning Approach (Behaviourist Approach)
2. Learning Approach/Behaviourist Psychology: Definition & key terms: All behaviour according to the Learning approach is learned through observation, stimulus-response, association & conditioning. In terms of the nature-nurture debate, the focus is on nurture.
Conditioning: How behaviour is acquired by observing responses to certain stimuli, e.g., if a reward is given to a dog every time it lifts its paw to the command paw, it has been conditioned to behave in this way. (CC)
Association: where we learn to associate 2 previously unconnected stimuli with each other. (CC)
Stimulus-response: When we pair a new stimulus with an existing behavioural response we create a stimulus-response link e.g., we learn to associate bells with food when in school, so when we hear a bell we begin to feel hungry; feeling hungry is the response to a new stimulus: the sound of a bell. (CC)
Law of Effect: The effect or consequence of a behaviour determines whether the behaviour is repeated, e.g., handing in work on time effect/consequence is praise or merit card if you value praise/merit cards the behaviour will be repeated because of the perceived beneficial consequences of that behaviour.(OC)
Model: Social Learning Theory suggests we imitate or copy the behaviour of significant others, referred to as models & we model their behaviour, especially if it their is reinforced or rewarded. (SLT)
3. Learning Approach/Behaviourist Psychology: Definition & key terms: Vicarious Reinforcement: We learn or model the behaviour of significant others, especially where they are rewarded for their behaviour this is vicarious reinforcement, e.g., if we see a celebrity rewarded for being thin we try & lose ourselves, i.e., it is not direct or immediately personal reinforcement. (SLT)
Stimulus generalisation: Where an association made between 2 stimulus becomes generalised to other similar types of stimuli; e.g., if a dog learns to associate a bell with food, then any type of bell sound will generate the association with food (famously with Pavlovs dogs, the association with bells or light generated the behavioural response of salivation). (CC)
Discrimination: In this context discrimination is the opposite of stimulus generalisation; I.e., instead of generalising a stimulus to the associated behavioural response, the response will occur only to a very specific stimulus, e.g., a dog will only salivate to a certain pitch or tone of bell, not to any bell sound. (CC)
Extinction: This refers to the process where the behaviour stops occurring in response to the stimulus, e.g., after a period of not being presented with food when a bell is rung, the dog stops salivating when it hears a bell. (CC)
Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction has occurred the behavioural response may spontaneously return in response to the associated stimulus, e.g., after a period of not salivating to the sound of a bell & not hearing a bell for sometime, when a dog that has previously associated bells with the presentation of food hears a bell it begins to salivate again. (CC.)
4. Learning Approach/Behaviourist Psychology: Definition & key terms: Positive Reinforcement: This is giving something perceived as rewarding or pleasurable after the desired behaviour has been exhibited. E.g., With Skinner, after the rat pressed a lever in the Skinner box it received food. This results in behaviour being repeated. (OC)
Negative Reinforcement: This is behaviour designed to remove something unpleasant (or negative) and also results in behaviour being repeated; e.g., if, every time a rat presses a lever it stops a electric foot shock being delivered, the rat will press the lever when the foot shock starts. (OC)
Punishment: Unlike positive & negative reinforcement, punishment stops behaviour being repeated by presenting something unpleasant or painful in response to the behaviour being shown. E.g., when a rat presses a lever it receives a small electric shock. (OC)
Types of reinforcers: To encourage desired behaviours reinforcers are needed; there are 2 main types:
Primary reinforcers: are used to satisfy basic needs, such as food, sex, water, love, affection. (OC)
Secondary reinforcers: are only rewarding because they are associated with a primary reinforcer; e.g., money, smiling. (OC). [NB., sometimes reinforcers can be given unintentionally.]
Behaviour shaping: The principles of Operant conditioning can be applied to complex behaviours. Broadly appropriate behaviour is rewarded & reinforced but becomes gradually more selective, I.e., reinforcement only follows more closely-related behaviours. E.g., some autistic children cannot speak; to overcome this they may be reinforced for appropriate body language, eye contact, smiling etc., then only reinforced for making speech-like sounds, then only reinforced for word utterances, then only reinforced for sentences. (OC)
Successive approximations: This refers to the way behaviour shaping only reinforces more & more closely related desired behavioural responses. (OC)
5. In depth area of study: Classical Conditioning; Operant Conditioning & Social Learning Theory (AO1) Classical Conditioning: Pavlov developed the theory of Classical Conditioning from his research on the salivary response of dogs: his research generated quantitative, behavioural & therefore observable data, the amount of saliva produced by his dogs in response to a learned, neutral stimulus. The response is referred to as Pavlovian conditioning.
Key terms: conditioning, stimulus generalisation & discrimination, extinction & spontaneous recovery (see definitions).
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): the natural stimulus, e.g., food; for a dog food is a natural stimulus.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): the natural response to a natural stimulus, it is an association that does not have to be learned, e.g., a dogs natural response to food is to salivate.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): an unnatural or neutral trigger to generate the UCR salivation this has to be learned through repeated associations, e.g., if a bell is rung repeatedly before a dog is presented with food, the bell is the CR & the dog salivates UCR. (NB., salivation is still the UCR because food UCS is still presented with the CS the bell.)
Conditioned Response (CR): when salivation occurs simply in response to the CR, e.g., the bell alone.
6. Classical Conditioning (continued) First Order Conditioning is where, for example, a dog learns to associate a bell with food. However, if a bell & a buzzer where presented together & then the dog was given food, the dog would quickly learn to associate the sound of a buzzer alone with food & would salivate to the sound of a buzzer: this is called Second Order Conditioning or Higher Order Conditioning. This can explain why sometimes behaviours can be triggered by seemingly quite bizarre, abstract or random stimuli, our associations or connections can be multi-layered.
Typically for classical conditioning to work the CS must precede (come before) the UCS (the bell must come before the food). Simultaneous & backward conditioning (the CS comes after the UCS; bell comes after food) are ineffective in creating behavioural responses.
Usually the CS & UCS have to paired repeatedly; however, in some circumstances research has shown that 1-trial learning can take place (Garcia & Koelling, 1966). They showed that if rats drank poisoned flavoured water they demonstrated a strong aversion to the flavoured water (CR) after just 1 exposure to it. If the conditioned - or learned response to a stimulus is strong enough we do not need repeated exposure to make a powerful association between the CS & CR.
7. Classical Conditioning (continued) Principles of classical conditioning have been used in advertising, e.g., someone attractive, the UCS, is paired with the product, the CS to generate a UCR, linking that product with the UCS.
Classical conditioning can also be used to explain fear & some phobic responses. For example, we may associate a neutral stimulus (CS) with a situation that causes anxiety, fear or stress (UCS); the natural response to fearful, anxiety inducing situations is to try & avoid them (UCR). So, for example, an individual may get into a lift, then the lift gets stuck and that person is trapped inside for several hours, they may become anxious & claustrophobic etc., & may associate lifts with feeling anxious & claustrophobic. He lift is the CS & the fear the CR; the lift is no longer a neutral stimulus because it is has been paired with fear & anxiety (UCS).
8. Classical Conditioning (continued)
9. Classical Conditioning (continued)
10. Little Albert (Watson & Rayner 1920)
11. Operant Conditioning Unlike classical conditioning, which is learning through association, operant conditioning is learning through consequence. It was famously pioneered by B.F. Skinner & involved his research using mainly pigeons & rats in a device he developed called the Skinner box.
Skinner described the ABC model of operant conditioning using his Skinner box:
A=Antecedent: the box or chamber could present a stimulus (lights, noises, levers etc.) that riggers behaviour.
B=Behaviour: a response that could be observed & measured as a result of the antecedent (e.g., pressing a lever).
C=Consequence: a reward or punishment followed the behaviour, e.g., pressing lever could=reward food, or punishment electric shock..
The stimulus-response association, or desired behaviour, is only repeated if the consequences of the response (or behaviour) to the stimulus (handing in work on time) is somehow beneficial or rewarding, i.e., praise=positively reinforcing; or the removal of something unpleasant, e.g., detention, teacher shouting=negative reinforcement.
12. Operant Conditioning continued Key terms: positive & negative reinforcement, punishment, primary & secondary reinforcers, behaviour shaping, successive approximations (see definitions).
Operant conditioning in action: if, when a mother takes her 5year old shopping, the child cries & stamps its feet demanding chocolate, if the mother gives in to this behaviour, the child has been positively reinforced. The child has learned that this behaviour ensured desirable consequences, in this case chocolate. The mother has been negatively reinforced, by giving in to the child, the mother has learned that the consequences of giving in are removal of the unpleasant, embarrassing behaviour of the child. Possibly the best way to prevent a cycle if similar behaviour & to eliminate the behaviour would be punishment, in the supermarket. However, for punishment to be effective it has to be carried out immediately following the undesired behaviour, if not the punishment is not necessarily associated with the undesired behaviour, the interval between punishment & behaviour is too great.
Avoidance Learning: where a rat learns that when a bell sounds, if it presses a lever it will avoid an electric shock.. The rat quickly learns not to wait for the shock, but as soon as it hears the bell it presses the lever. This can be compared to phobias in humans; e.g., if you are scared of spiders you do not wait for the spider to come near you, you simply leave the room. Thus you never learn that the spider cannot harm you, there are in fact no bad consequences of having a spider near you, you simply avoid spiders at all costs.
13. Operant Conditioning continued Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous ratio reinforcement: Every time a behaviour is exhibited it gets rewarded; this can result in fairly quick, steady learning but the behaviour is quickly extinguished if the reward or reinforcement is withdrawn. This schedule is easy to carry out in a laboratory setting, but is rare in everyday life. All other reinforcement schedules are partial as rewards are only offered for the desired behaviour some of the time.
Fixed ratio reinforcement: A reward/reinforcement is given after a fixed number of the required behaviours, e.g., a reward is given to a dog every 5th time it obeys the command sit. This schedule tends to produce high, steady & fairly well-enduring response rates, but extinction is quite rapid once reinforcement is removed. There may be a post-reinforcement pause (PRP) or gap between receiving reinforcement & resuming performance of the behaviour, e.g., there might be a gap between the dog being reinforced & obeying the sit command again.
Variable ratio reinforcement: Reinforcement/reward is provided after a varying amount of responses, varying around an average. E.g., a dog might receive a reward for sitting on the 1st, 10th, 13th,17th, 25th occasion, with the reward being given roughly, on average, every 5th behaviour or obeying sit [NB., 5 is an average figure, so it is not always 5]. This type of reinforcement produces the fastest response rate & the greatest resistance to extinction; PRP tends to be absent in laboratory animals. It is the type of reinforcement schedule most notably applied to gambling (WHY? How dos this explain why gambling is such a hard to break for some people?)
Ratio V interval reinforcement: Ratio simply refers to the ratio of behaviour response to reward, I.e., how many times the dog sits before it receives a reward/reinforcement. Interval reinforcement refers to the interval or time between behavioural response & reinforcement. The reinforcement occurs regardless of the number of responses made, as long as at least one desired response is made. Salaries are an example of fixed-interval reinforcements, payment is received at regular intervals, exam results are on a fixed-interval.
14. Social Learning Theory (SLT) Social learning is learning trough observation, not association or consequence. Reinforcement does not have to be direct to reproduce behaviour (vicarious reinforcement). In SLT we can learn behaviour without being reinforced for it; however, reinforcement may play a part in the performance of the observed behaviour; e.g., child may learn offensive language from its parents, but only repeat them in situations that will be rewarding to impress peers or annoy parents
An observer learns behaviour through observing & imitating, or modelling another person (a model).
Both humans & animals learn through modelling. Cook (1988) found that Rhesus monkeys raised in captivity displayed fear of snakes, after previously showing no fear, when they observed the anxious reactions of wild rhesus monkeys to snakes.
Bandura is most closely associated with Social Learning Theory (SLT). He believed that social learning was only achieved if 4 criteria were met: attention, retention, reproduction & motivation.
Attention: to the role model if we do not pay attention we will not learn.
Retention: of the observed behaviour, basically being able to remember the behaviour.
Reproduction: of the target behaviour if the behaviour is beyond our capabilities we cannot reproduce it, e.g., seeing a dance routine on tv we cannot reproduce it if we have no rhythm & cannot dance!
Motivation: imitating the observed behaviour must be seen as rewarding in some way.
We tend to imitate key models: significant others, e.g., parents, peers, those with power or status & media figures who are successful, people of the same sex, people who we feel we have some affinity with & people who we see being reinforced for their behaviour (vicarious reinforcement).
Key terms: observation, vicarious reinforcement, models, imitation.
An example: A child watches an older sibling use a spoon to eat (attention); remembers it (retention); imitates that behaviour next mealtime (reproduction); is praised by mother for using spoon (motivation).
15. Treatments & therapies: 1 from the list below
16. Treatments/therapies based on The Learning Approach: AO1 & AO2. Aversion therapy Aversion therapy: is based on the principles of Classical Conditioning. It aims to remove undesirable behaviour, e.g., alcoholism, by associating the behaviour with an aversive stimulus, leading to a conditioned response where the undesired, maladaptive behaviour is associated with something unpleasant.
Alcoholism has been treated using aversion therapy. Alcoholics are given an emetic drug (something which induces vomiting), like antabuse; the alcohol becomes paired or associated with vomiting, so that vomiting becomes a conditioned response to alcohol & the alcoholic stops drinking. Aversion therapy has also been used to treat sexually deviant behaviour, self-harm in children &, rather controversially, homosexuality in the 1960s. In these cases the aversive stimuli could be electric shocks or negative social, emotional & physical consequences of the deviant behaviour.
E.g., UCS (Antabuse) UCR (vomiting)
UCS + CS (alcohol) UCR (vomiting)
CS (alcohol) CR (unpleasant expectation-vomiting)
A more recent version of aversion therapy is covert sensitisation. This is where an imagined association with the undesirable behaviour, e.g., if you wanted to give up eating chocolate imagine chocolate being covered in spiders. It is obviously more ethical to imagine something aversive, like vomiting or being small electric shocks than to actually experience these things.
17. Treatments & therapies: Aversion therapy evaluation (AO2) Aversion therapy depends on the person being treated being prepared to undergo the aversive stimuli; an alcoholic might simply think its the antabuse making them sick & can stop taking it; the association will be lost if the alcoholic stops taking the antabuse.
It is arguably quite unethical as it causes some distress to the patient (see covert sensitisation as an alternative); it has also been used controversially to treat sex offenders & as a cure for homosexuality. It can be abused & used as way of controlling what society regards as unacceptable social behaviour.
It has mixed results, with some studies showing it to be affective, while others suggest that extinction of the aversive stimulus & spontaneous recovery occurs, I.e., the undesired or maladaptive behaviour returns over time.
Duker & Seys (2000) showed that self-harm in 41 children with learning difficulties was reduced using aversion therapy (electric shocks administered remotely if the individual began to self-harm). However, a long-term follow-up (108 months later) showed that in some of the children the self-harming behaviour had reappeared.
Weinrott et al., (1997) used aversion therapy to treat young sex offenders; the aversive stimuli were the negative social, emotional, physical, & legal consequences of sex offences. Physiological & self-report measures of deviant sexual arousal seemed to be reduced following the treatment.
Howard (2001) tested aversion therapy with a group of alcoholics & found that after the treatment patients felt confident that they could resist alcohol in high risk situations were they would normally drink & that this effect was specific to alcoholic beverages. However, the treatment was less effective with more long-term alcoholics.
It can only be used to eradicate maladaptive behaviour, not introduce a more adaptive new one & only where a suitable aversive stimulus exists for the maladaptive behaviour displayed.
It does not solve the underlying problem, e.g., the cause of the alcoholism, so is not a long-term solution & works best if an alternative, adaptive behaviour is being reinforced alongside the aversion therapy.
18. Treatments & Therapies: Token Economies (AO1 & AO2) Token economy: This is based on the principles of operant conditioning; it aims to use positive reinforcement to encourage desirable behaviour. When desired behaviour is exhibited tokens are given; these tokens act as secondary reinforcers & they can be exchanged for primary reinforcers (such as privileges & luxuries) when a sufficient number of tokens have been saved.
The use of tokens as indirect rewards allows for immediate reinforcement of appropriate behaviour, enabling patients to be positively reinforced straightaway even though they cannot be given primary reinforcers continuously. Behaviour shaping can also be used, I.e., tokens can be used in an increasingly selective manner.
Evaluation: Token economy reflects how the real world operates, I.e., we do not get primary reinforcers continuously but have to exchange money for the things that we want.
Lots of research suggest that token economies are effective; e.g., Ayllon & Azrin (1968) found it successful in reinforcing self-care in schizophrenic patients in a psychiatric hospital; Paul & Lentz (1977) showed improvements in self-care & pro-social behaviour using token economies in psychiatric hospitals; Petry et al. (2006) found it effective in treating alcoholics when tokens where entries to a prize draw were used as tokens; and Sindelar et al;. (2007) demonstrated similar success with 120 cocaine users on a 12 week programme.
They are cheap & easy to administer & can be more ethical than other methods of modifying behaviour, as no distress is caused.
However, token economies can lead to dependency where patients only produce the desired behaviour to receive a token.
Once outside the institution tokens are less easy to administer; it can be hard to transfer the token economy system to the outside world, as tokens are more subtle & often delayed & behaviour often does not get so easily observed & rewarded.
Token economies might not be used for the benefit of the patient, I.e., behaviour which is compliant might be rewarded rather than behaviour which is beneficial for the patient.
Token economies do not address the underlying cause of the problems, but modify behaviour.
Patients with severe clinical conditions might be given tokens for things which they should have automatically & which are basic rights; they should get certain primary reinforcers without having to earn tokens to exchange for them: this is unethical.
19. Treatments & Therapies: Flooding Flooding: This is a treatment based on classical conditioning, most commonly used to treat phobias.
It works on the principle that we cannot stay in a state of heightened arousal, anxiety or stress for a prolonged time, eventually we will return to a normal state.
The patient is confronted to massive exposure to the object of their fear, causing much stress. However, if they endure this stress eventually their arousal/stress will return to normal & they will associate the object of their fear not with feeling stressed & anxious but with feeling normal.
For example, if you are scared of spiders you should place a large spider on your hand, or place your hand in a jar of spiders. This will initially be very unpleasant & your heart rate will increase dramatically, but after a short time it should begin to return to normal & you will begin to associate the spider not with feeling anxious & having racing heart rate, but with feeling calm.
Evaluation: Flooding can be very successful in treating simple phobias; however, it is less successful with more complex phobias, like agoraphobia.
It can be stressful for the patient, but they do agree to the procedure beforehand.
If the patient withdraws half way through the treatment it can make the phobia worse.
Spontaneous recovery may be a feature, I.e., the phobia may return if the patient is not exposed to the object of their fear for some time & is confronted with it again. It works best if there is regular exposure after the initial flooding.
20. Treatments & Therapies: Systematic Desensitisation Systematic Desensitisation: This is a treatment based on Classical conditioning
The aim is to extinguish an undesirable behaviour (e.g., phobia) by substituting the response with something, e.g., relaxation: this is called reciprocal inhibition, as 2 contrasting emotions cannot co-exists, you cannot be relaxed & scared at the same time.
The treatment involves a series of steps, or hierarchies, you begin by imaging the object of your fear in a least threatening scenario, through to the most, e.g., spider outside to spider on your arm. This is referred to as a hierarchy of fears.
The patient is given relaxation training & techniques & asked to work through their hierarchy of fears in order, starting with the lowest; as the patient imagines their fear they should also use their relaxation techniques to combat the fear until it subsides: they then move on tot eh next stage of the fear hierarchy.
Evaluation: This treatment has been very successful with specific phobias, but not with more complex phobias like social phobias & agoraphobia.
It is not as stress inducing as aversion therapy & flooding (although to prove the systematic desensitisation has worked an individual will need to confront the object of their fear & be flooded).
The patient has more control over their treatment as they determine when they are sufficiently relaxed to move to the next stage of the fear hierarchy.
It requires the patient to imagine the object of their fear vividly which they might not be prepared to do.
21. The Learning Approach: Gender Development (AO1 & AO2) See also Psychodynamic approach.
Social Learning Theory & Operant conditioning offer explanations of gender development through observation, modelling, imitation of gender appropriate behaviours in parents, peers, shaping & others & reinforcement, e.g., positive reinforcement in the form of praise & attention for appropriate gender behaviour & punishment for that deemed inappropriate, e.g. teasing, telling off.
Children observe their parents as role models & may be encouraged to engage with the same sex parent when performing stereotypical activities, such as housework & repairing a car.
Gender-appropriate behaviour is often encouraged from birth, e.g., choice of clothes, names, dcor of nursery/bedroom, type of toys given as presents.
This approach suggests that a childs biological sex determines the way they are treated & the behaviours they display. Gender-stereotypical behaviours are encouraged through reinforcement & inappropriate gender behaviour is punished. This punishment may be worse for boys who display feminine behaviour in front of their fathers (Langlois & Downs, 1980).
Gender-stereotypical toys encourage gender-appropriate behaviour; e.g., dolls reinforce quiet nurturing behaviour in girls, whereas cars encourage noisy, physical play in boys.
Underwood et al. (2004) investigated how boys & girls responded to a difficult play partner; there were few differences but boys tended to be more verbally aggressive & to socially exclude the partner more; girls used a wider range of non-verbal behaviours, incl. Glaring, rolling their eyes & being more negative about the partner when they were absent (boys stereotypically seen as more aggressive; girls more prone to malicious gossip).
The Learning approach suggests people make assumptions about & behaviour towards others according to gender expectations. Golombok & Fivush (1994) suggest that male stereotypes=instrumental, I.e. making things happen, aggressive, active, competitive; female stereotypes=relational, concern for interactions between people & how they feel, nurturing, passive, cooperative.
These gender stereotypes seem to be repeated across cultures. NB., male traits typically seem to be valued more highly than female ones.
These gender stereotypes influence the behaviour that we see exhibited, the behaviour we observe, how we treat people & how they subsequently behave.
22. The Learning Approach: Gender Development - Evaluation
24. 2 Key Studies in Detail from The Learning Approach
25. Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models Name: See above.
Aim: To investigate whether exposure to a real-life aggressive model increases aggression in children; can aggression be acquired through modelling & are children more likely to imitate same-sex models.
Method: 72 children from Stanford University nursery aged 3-6 (36 boys/36girls) were placed into 1 of 2 experimental groups; the remaining children were placed in the control group. In the experimental groups the children saw either an aggressive or non-aggressive role model of either the same sex or opposite. All the children were matched for physical & verbal aggression before the experiment started. The children observed the aggressive model assemble a toy for 1 minute before attacking a bobo doll (punching it & hitting it on the head with a rubber mallet etc.); the non-aggressive model simply assembled the toy for 10 minutes. The control group did not see any model. After 10 minutes all the children were then deliberately annoyed to ensure they were all equally frustrated; this was done by taking them to a room with nice toys & giving them only a short time to lay with them before they had to stop. The children were then taken to the experimental room containing just a bobo doll. They were then observed playing with the bobo doll through a 1-way mirror for 20 minutes. Generalisability: The children were all from US & from Stanford University nursery, so may not be entirely representative of the general target population.
Reliability: Standardised procedure was used, e.g., in terms of aggressive behaviour, verbal & physical displayed, punching, hitting bobo doll on head with mallet, kick him, pow. The behaviour of the children was also assessed by more than 1observer, to give high inter-rater reliability. Subjectivity was avoided by agreeing beforehand on what counted as aggressive behaviour.
Application to real life: The study was influential in helping our understanding of how children acquire behaviour through observing others. This has implications for media violence, film & game certification & the watershed on tv.
Validity: The experiment lacks some ecological validity because the experience was very unusual for the children.
26. Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models Results: Children exposed to imitative aggressive acts, I.e., where they observed an aggressive model (physical & non-verbal aggression) were significantly more aggressive than those who did not receive aggressive modelling. Both boys & girls displayed more non-imitative aggression after observing the aggressive role model. Modelling aggressive behaviour was greater if the model was the same sex, although the effect was more pronounced for boys. Both sexes showed tendency to copy violent behaviour, although this was stronger for boys; boys tended to imitate physical aggression more, girls verbal aggression.
Conclusion: Observation & imitation can explain how we learn specific behaviours without obvious reinforcement. We have a tendency to imitate sex-models more. Validity contd: The children had not seen bobo dolls before so would not know how to play with them so their only reference for how to play would be the models; nevertheless, they copied the models very precisely. The children may simply have been showing obedience to the adult & may not copy older children.
Ethics: The children modelled anti-social behaviour by being exposed to an aggressive role model; it would have been better to expose the children to a pro-social model modelling good behaviour. The children were caused distress initially by having toys withdrawn from them to make them all equally frustrated.
27. Watson & Rayner (1920) Conditioned emotional responses Name: See above.
Aim: To investigate whether emotional responses, such as fear, could be conditioned (using principles of classical conditioning)
Method: 9 month old infant called Little Albert was selected & assessed for his emotional stability. He was unafraid of a range of stimuli, incl. a white rat and a rabbit. At 11 months he was presented with the white rat again, this time, when he reached for it as before, the researchers struck a steel bar with a hammer behind him. This loud noise scared him. When Little Albert next reached our for the rat the steel bar was struck again. This was repeated 5x, 1 week later. After 31 days he was presented a range of objects. (Lab. Exp. IV=object of fear, rat etc; DV=emotional response to rat etc. UCS=loud noise; UCR=fear; CS/NS=rat, cotton wool etc; CS by itself CR=fear.) Generalisability: It is a single case experiment, so may be limited in terms of generalising results some replications of the procedure have failed to reproduce the findings.
Reliability: See above also difficult to repeat exactly because of ethical issues.
Application to real life: It can explain phobias & therefore treatments can be based on classical conditioning.
Validity: There would be no demand characteristics due to Little Alberts age; his behaviour would not have been affected by the presence of the researchers or from being in a study. Sudden loud noises due induce fear, or at least alarm & surprise.
28. Watson & Rayner (1920) Conditioned emotional responses Results: By the 2nd trial Little Albert was cautious about the rat & a further 5 days later he cried in response to the rat & various similar objects, incl. a rabbit, a seal pelt, a dog, cotton wool & Father Christmas beard (NB., he generalised his fears stimulus generalisation). He maintained these responses 7 weeks after the start of the study. However, his fear showed a marked reduction in his level of fear towards these objects & he reached out to touch the rabbit.
Conclusion: It is possible to classically condition the emotional response of fear, although this response seems to diminish in intensity over time, extinction begins to lesson fear. Ethics: Clearly Little Albert was caused some distress; also he was due to leave the nursery he was in shortly after the experiment ceased, so there was no chance to recondition him to extinguish his fear & prevent any long-term effects. However, long-term damage seems unlikely as the effects of the fear conditioning were already reducing in intensity before he left the nursery.
29. Skinner (1948) Superstition in the pigeon Aim: to demonstrate that superstitious behaviours could be acquired by animals.
Method/Procedure: 8 pigeons were given limited food to reduce their weight to 75% of normal to ensure they were hungry. Each pigeon was then placed in a Skinner box for a few minutes each day & received a food pellet every 15 seconds regardless of its behaviour. The time interval between food pellet release was increased to 1 minute after several days of conditioning. Finally, the observed behaviours were extinguished by stopping the release of the food pellets. In one pigeon food pellets were again released after 20 minutes of behaviour extinction.
Results: 6 of the 8 pigeons engaged in repetitive behaviours between the release of food pellets, incl. turning anti-clockwise, hopping, head tossing & pendulum swings of the head. These behaviours were not exhibited before the experiment started & seemed entirely dependent on the food rewards. Increased delay in food release (to 1 minute) made the behaviour quite frantic. Extinction of the new behaviours was slow. The bird that acquired the hopping behaviour hopped 10000 times without receiving food before extinction occurred. When the food was introduced at 15 second intervals the hopping behaviour quickly returned.
Conclusion: The pigeons seemed to behave as though the food pellets they received depended upon the behaviour even though it did not (the food pellets were dispensed on a fixed interval system, every 15 seconds or 1 minute). This is similar to superstitious behaviour in humans, e.g., not walking under ladders, or having lucky mascots. Since the behaviour is reinforced intermittently, not continuously, it is difficult to extinguish & if extinction does occur, the behaviour can relatively easily be reconditioned (re-introduced).reinforcement.
Validity: As the research was conducted on pigeons, generalising to humans has to be treated with some degree of caution because of the much higher level of sophistication of humans & more complex biological, social & psychological interactions that occur with humans. However, as we have evolved from animals & share many similar brain & behavioural features some parallels may be drawn.
30. Cocaine-reinforced behaviour in rats, Pickens & Thompson (1968) Aim: To investigate the effects of cocaine as a positive reinforcement for rats & how different doses & different fixed-ratio schedules affected responding behaviour.
Method/Procedure: 3 albino rats were laboratory-reared with free access to food & water. Each rat was fitted with an intravenous device that allowed it to self-administer a cocaine solution when a lever was pressed (continuously or a fixed-ratio schedule).
Results: A high behaviour response was achieved, i.e., the rats pressed the levers to get the cocaine. When the fixed-interval between lever pressing & administering of cocaine was increased the rats simply pressed the levers quicker so that the total reinforcement per hour remained the same. However, when the dose increased the response decreased (the more you have in 1 go the less you crave as the effects last longer). However, unlike food reinforcement, when the cocaine dose exceeded a certain amount there was an abrupt loss of response behaviour. This does not indicate extinction, the cocaine was no longer desired so the behaviour was exhibited to get the cocaine; rather that when the high dosage was reached the rats were not able to respond, the effects of the cocaine at that amount had incapacitated them (they were too high!).
Conclusion: Cocaine reinforces behaviour significantly, we will behave in characteristic ways to get more of it, but as the dosage increases, the response behaviour decreases.
Validity/Ethics: The research was conducted on rats so cannot necessarily be translated to humans, but rats physiology & behavioural responses not too different from humans in this context. The research may have caused distress to the rats, side-effects of cocaine etc., but obviously not ethical to conduct this type of research on human participants (why?)
31. 1 Key issue from The Learning Approach (Behaviourism)
32. Learning theory & anorexia Anorexia nervosa mainly affects women - 90% - & age of onset is typically late teens-early twenties. For a diagnosis of anorexia the sufferer must be less than 85% of their normal body weight, other symptoms might include loss of menstruation for 3 consecutive months (amenorrhea).
Social Learning Theory=we have a tendency to imitate same sex models, especially if they are seen as high status, or their behaviour is seen as reinforcing in someway (vicarious reinforcement). Celebrities are often praised for being thin & criticised for being overweight. We tend to model behaviour that is important to us, such as being liked, popular with members of the opposite sex thin models seem to be popular with men. Women especially are under pressure in Western media to be thin.
When people lose weight they are often complimented, this can be positively reinforcing fitting into clothes we could not before might also be positively reinforcing.
There is now a backlash against size 0 this might be seen as a form of punishment, a way of stopping obsessive concern over size.
Are parents might provide unhealthy role models with regard to attitudes towards food.
There are alternative explanations: one psychodynamic explanation is that of wanting to stay in a state of arrested development/pre-sexual. There are also biological explanations, such as problems with neurotransmitters like serotonin, or a structural problem with the hypothalamus (which regulates hunger, among other functions).
Evidence supporting SLT is strong, e.g., Bandura, but it is not related directly to anorexia & his research arguably lacked ecological validity.
33. Learning theory & the influence of advertising Classical conditioning principles are applied to advertising, e.g., paired association. Something that is naturally exciting, such as white water rafting, might be paired with a particular product, e.g., deodorant so that we associate the product with being exciting.
Operant conditioning suggests that positive reinforcement changes behaviour, e.g., if we get some kind of reward we might alter our behaviour, such as buying a product to get a prize or points on a store card.
Advertisers can suggest that a product or lifestyle is rewarding, if we see others rewarded for buying that particular product, e.g., attracting members of the opposite sex we might buy that product too (vicarious reinforcement (SLT)).
Role models might also influence behaviour e.g., celebrity endorsement of products (SLT).
However, there are also social & psychodynamic explanations for advertising, e.g., conformity, appealing to id part of personality etc.
34. Learning theory & increase of female violence There appears to be a rise in the number of crimes committed by women at least statistically (it might be that women are now more likely to be reported for violent behaviour).
SLT suggests that we model significant others, there are now more violent female role models in the media (as well as more pro-social female role models - see earlier slides on gender).
SLT suggests that we are more likely to imitate role models if we see them rewarded for their behaviour (vicarious reinforcement). This might be the case with regard to violent female role models female violence is no longer portrayed as deeply shocking & as having severe repercussions for the female concerned, e.g., Lara Croft, Kill Bill.
However, explanations might be socioeconomic women have more political, social & economic freedom & are simply exercising these freedoms in the same way as men, it is now easier, socially & economically, for women to get drunk & so sometimes be violent, just like men.
35. Learning theory & media violence SLT & operant conditioning are powerful arguments against too much violence being portrayed in the media, especially if the consequences are seen as rewarding. In most Hollywood films, even the hero engages in frequent violence to get HIS way & get the girl violence is rewarding & is carried out by someone we are supposed to admire & has status & prestige.
Lots of research, e.g., Bandura shows how easily children model behaviour.
However, not all research shows the pernicious effects of media violence. A natural experiment conducted by Charlton e al., 2000, on the island of St.Helena, found that the children who inhabited the island did not become more violent after being exposed to satellite television where previously there had been none.
One argument is that violent media simply reflects social violence, it holds a mirror up to society, it does not cause violence, and it is important to know everything that happens in the world if we want to improve the world, not just know the good things.
Finally, not everyone who is exposed to violent media models this violence & becomes violent themselves, in fact most do not.
Violent people tend to seek out violent media, suggesting the violence comes first. A desire for violence might reflect a faulty id, or a biological problem, such as too much testosterone, or a personality problem - such as psychopathy.
36. Research Methods/How Science Works & Practical In this section for The Learning Approach (Behaviourism) you will need to be able to describe & evaluate a range of methodological issues, including:
Observation as a research method structured, naturalistic, covert, overt, participant & non-participant.
Tallying procedures qualitative & quantitative.
Ethical guidelines for human & animal participants.
Laboratory & animal experiments.
Participant design.
Testing for a difference or a relationship.
Choosing an inferential statistical test.
Level of measurement
Choosing level of significance.
Using Critical value tables.
37. Observations
38. Laboratory experiments : a summary (see Cognitive Approach also) An IV is manipulated & the effect on DV measures.
Experimental hypothesis explains what is predicted (directional or non-directional).
Experimental & control group compared
Extraneous variables controlled for to enable a causal cause & effect relationship - to be proved, e.g., situational & participant variables, experimenter bias & demand characteristics standardised procedure & instructions.
Concepts are operationalised, i.e., IV & DV.
Careful sampling to avoid participant variables.
Can be matched pairs, repeated or independent measures design.
Tend to gather quantitative data
Tend to reliable due to experimental controls.
Tend to lack ecological validity.
May be low experimental validity/credibility because of contrived/artificial nature of task (e.g., Milgram?)
Data gathered tends to be quite objective because it is quantitative in nature, therefore, little need for elaborate interpretation & also IV is often tightly controlled & well operationalised so little interpretation required.
Can be generalised because sample can be carefully selected & screened.
Tend not to be ethical problems, easy to brief & debrief participants, get informed consent, participants can withdraw easily.
39. Animal Experiments (Learning & Biological Approach) Shorter life cycle means that the full progression/development of behaviour can be observed quickly.
The environment that animals are in can be very strictly controlled, much more so than for humans making research more reliable.
Research can be done that might not be ethical on humans.
Genetic & environmental factors can be tightly controlled making nature/nurture research easier.
Findings from research performed an animals might benefit animals.
As we have evolved from animals we share many of the same physiological & behavioural characteristics. Generalising from animals to humans can be problematic as humans are much more complex psychologically & physiologically & have far more complex social interactions which influence behaviour.
Studies must pay attention to the features of the species used, to ensure that conclusions are appropriate given the natural tendencies of that particular species (E.G., rats/pigeons).
Ethical issues regarding the use of animals are still important considerations.
As animals cannot talk only the outward behaviour can be studied, animals cannot be questioned about how they feel, their responses etc. usually only quantitative data can be gathered, not qualitative.
40. Ethics & animal research Clearly the same ethical principles that apply to humans cannot apply to animals (see Social Approach); animals cannot give informed consent etc. Nevertheless, there are important ethical guidelines that must be followed when conducting psychological research on animals:
Researchers must be licensed by the Home Office under the Home Office Scientific Procedures Act.
Animals should not be caused unnecessary pain & suffering.
Animals should be placed in suitable caging, e.g., big enough & their natural capacities should be catered for as much as possible, e.g., roaming animals have room to move, social animals have contact with other members of that species.
Anaesthetics should be used for painful, invasive procedures, & animals heart rate & blood pressure should be monitored during medical procedures to ensure that effects of anaesthetic are still present.
Endangered species should not be used.
An alternative to animal research should always be sought & used first & where there is no alternative to using animals, as few animals as possible should be used.
41. Ethics & human participants See BPS guidelines outlined in the Social Approach.
NB., ethics & learning approach: Bandura study: parents can give consent on behalf of the children, but if they are not present during the procedure they do not know full extent of what is happening & so cannot withdraw their children if they wanted to.
The violence the children were exposed was not excessive, but it might have been ethically better if they were exposed to pro-social behaviour & models.
Little Albert (Watson & Rayner, 1920) there seems there was little or no informed consent given, Little Alberts mother does not seem to have been made fully aware of procedure; Little Albert was obviously caused some distress.
A classic study with regard to ethical issues is Milgrams obedience study, also Zimbardo & Hofling & Meeus & Raaijmakers (see Social Approach).
42. Inferential Statistical Tests In order to establish what sort of statistical test to use you need to know 4 things:
Is your study testing for a difference or a correlation/relationship.
What design is it: repeated measures, independent measures or matched pairs? (see Cognitive Approach).
What is the level of measurement of the data: nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio? (see Psychodynamic Approach).
Choosing a statistical test.
Choosing level of significance.
Using critical tables
Degrees of freedom
43. Choosing a statistical test
44. Levels of significance What is the probability or likelihood that your experimental or alternative hypothesis, or prediction, is correct. This means that out of 100 participants how many would act as predicted by your hypothesis.
In psychology to accept an experimental or alternative hypothesis of a new theory, one where there is not already a lot of existing evidence, it needs to be shown that it is 95% certain that the behaviour predicted by the hypothesis is NOT due to chance, i.e., most participants behave as predicted by the hypothesis: this is accepted as a significant result, i.e., one that can be accepted. If there already is a lot of supporting evidence, then the level of significance acceptable rises to 99% or 1% likelihood that the hypothesis is down to chance, 99% it is not.
This is usually expressed as follows: probability: p<0.05 this means that there is 95% chance that the experimental/alternative hypothesis is correct & only a 5% that it is not.
P<0.01 means that there is 99% chance that the experimental/alternative hypothesis is correct & only a 1% chance that it is not.
Critical & Observed values: to establish if a result is significant or not, or if it is just a chance result you must obtain an observed value (through conducting a statistical test) & compare this value with the critical value for a 1 or 2 tailed hypothesis using critical value tables (see Handouts).
45. CHI-Square test In the Learning approach you must conduct a Chi-Square statistical test.
Predicting a difference or predicting a relationship: predicting a difference means that you are suggesting that 1 group will behave differently to another, e.g., those under 50 will drive more quickly & have more accidents than those 50+. Predicting a correlation or relationship suggests that 2 variables will be linked, either positively or negatively, e.g., the older you get the slower you drive (negative correlation)
A Chi-square test involves predicting a difference, independent measures design & nominal data; you will need to know the Degrees of Freedom (df), you will also need to know the number of participants: for a Chi-square test the observed value must be equal to or larger than the critical value (as for Spearman RHO).
Degrees of Freedom: This refers to how much freedom collected observations have to vary. E.g., when I put on a pair of trousers I can put either my left or right leg in first df=1 because it is only ever going to be left or right first. If my dog wears trousers then df=2 i.e. more than 1 choice is available. If there are 2 urns, 1 with tea, 1 with coffee & the label falls off both, then either the 1st urn or the 2nd will contain coffee; however, if there are 3 urns (1=coffee, 1= ea, 1=chocolate) & the labels fall off them, then your chance to incorrectly pour yourself something other than coffee increases, i.e., the df increases to more than 1.
46. CHI-Square test
47. CHI-Square test
48. The Practical The practical must involve a Chi-square statistical test.
It must also be an observation of some kind involving ideas/concepts from the Learning Approach (& of course, must be ethical!)
Data should be gathered using Tallying (see Psychodynamic approach): Tallying is when specific observable behaviour is recorded each time it happens, i.e, every time an individual holds open a door this generates quantitative data; tallying can also generate qualitative data, e.g., if quotes or explanations regarding behaviour are also recorded.
1 suggestion is the one used to explain degrees of freedom (df) the likelihood of women V men driving big cars (NB., keep it simple df=1 so use a 2-by-2 table men/women, big/small cars).
The suggestion is that as a result of SLT & socialisation most women drive small cars (adverts, parents) & possibly women feel less confident with big cars because of negative images of women as drivers, i.e., less confident about driving so drive smaller, more manageable cars.
Other observations could be gender/age & helping behaviour, holding doors open etc., likelihood of stopping at crossing if male/female, young or older driver etc.
49. The Practical Write up your study thoroughly (see Psychodynamic approach).
Consider validity issues & how you operationalised your variables, e.g., how you judged a car small or large (engine size, length etc.). Is an observation a valid research method to sue for this kind of study?
Consider reliability lack of controls, issues which might make your study difficult to replicate or prone to get different results if conducted again.
Can you study be generalised, was your sample representative, what issues might there be with using an opportunity sample?
Is the study credible? Does it link to other research or concepts from the Learning approach? What other evidence/explanations might link to your hypothesis? Was he observation method a credible & valid way of gathering data I.e., the observation only lasted a short time, only done once, dont why people were driving the cars they were, did they own them or company cars etc. might not have chosen those cars of they had a preference etc.
