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H U MAN H E A L T H A N D DI S E A SE

Learn about the factors that affect health and how to achieve good health. Discover common infectious diseases, their symptoms, and methods of transmission. Explore prevention and control measures for infectious diseases.

jpauley
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H U MAN H E A L T H A N D DI S E A SE

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  1. HUMANHEALTHANDDISEASE

  2. HEALTH • Definedasastateofcompletephysical,mentalandsocialwell-beingofaperson. • Healthypeopleareefficientatwork.Thisincreasesproductivityandeconomicprosperity. • Improperfunctioningofoneormoreorgansorsystemsofthebodyisadverselyaffected,givesrisetovarioussignsandsymptomsi.ewehavedisease.

  3. FACTORSTHATAFFECTHEALTH • Balanceddiet • Personalhygiene • Regularexercise • Goodhabits

  4. HOWTOACHIEVEGOODHEALTH? • Knowledgeaboutdiseases,theircauseandeffectVaccination/immunisation • ControlofvectorsProperdisposalofwaste • Consumptionofcleanfoodandwater • Maintenanceofhygiene

  5. Diseases • Improperfunctioningofoneormoreorgansorsystemsofthebodyisadverselyaffected,givesrisetovarioussignsandsymptomsi.ewehavedisease. • Diseaseswhichcaneasilytransmitfromonepersontootherbyanymeansarecalledinfectiousorcommunicablediseases. • Diseaseswhichcannotbetransmittedfromonepersontoanotherarecallednon-infectiousornon-communicablediseases. • Diseasecausingorganismsaresaidtobepathogen.

  6. INFECTIOUSDISEASES •  • Virus-Commoncold,polio,measles • Bacteriatetanus -Typhoid,pneumonia,plague,diphtheria, • Protozoa-Malaria,amoebiasis • Fungi-ringworm • Helminthes-Ascariasis,filariasis,taeniasis

  7. TYPHOID • Pathogen:Salmonellatyphi(bacterium) • Organsaffected:smallintestine,migratetootherorgans • throughblood. • Methodoftransmission:contaminationoffoodandwater. • Symptoms: • Sustainedhighfever(39oto40oC) • Weakness,stomachpain,constipation,headacheandlossofappetite. • Intestinalperforationanddeathmayoccur. • Test:TyphoidfevercouldbeconfirmedbyWidaltest.

  8. PNEUMONIA: • Pathogen:StreptococcuspneumoniaeandHaemophilusinfluenzae. • Organsaffected:Alveolioflungs,alveoligetfilledwith • fluid. • Methodoftransmission:inhalingthedroplets/aerosolsreleasedbyinfectedperson.Sharingglassesandotherutensils. • Symptoms: • Fever,chills,coughandheadache. • Inseverecasesthelipsandfingernailsturngraytobluishcolour.

  9. COMMONCOLD: • Pathogen:Rhinoviruses. • Organsaffected:noseandrespiratorypassage • Methodoftransmission: • Directinhalationofdropletsfrominfectedperson. • Throughcontaminatedobjectslikepen,books,cups, • computerkeyboard. • Symptoms: • Nasalcongestionanddischarge,sorethroat,hoarseness, • cough.

  10. MALARIA: • Pathogen:Plasmodium.(P.vivax,P.malariae,P.ovale,P.falciparum) • MalignantmalariacausedbyP.falciparumisfatal. • Organsaffected:liver,RBC. • Methodoftransmission:bybitingoffemaleanopheles • mosquito(vector) • Symptoms:highfeverandchill,feveroccursoneveryalternateday,vomiting.

  11. AMOEBIASIS(Amoebicdysentery) • Pathogen:Entamoebahistolyticaaprotozoanparasite. • Organsaffected:largeintestineofman • Methodoftransmission: • Houseflyactsasmechanicalcarrier. • Contaminationwaterandfoodwithfaecalmatter. • Symptoms: • Constipation,abdominalpainandcramps. • Stoolswithexcessmucousandbloodclots.

  12. ASCARIASIS: • Pathogen:Ascarislumbricoids(nematode) • Organsaffected:intestineofman • Methodoftransmission:Contaminatedwater,vegetables,fruits. • Symptoms: • Internalbleeding,muscularpain,fever,anemia. • Blockageoftheintestinalpassage.

  13. FILARIASISORELEPHANTIASIS: • Pathogen:Wuchereria(W.bancroftiandW.Malayi)(nematodeparasite) • Organsaffected:lymphaticvesselsofthelowerlimbs, genitalorgans. • Methodsoftransmission:bitingofinfectedfemaleculexmosquito. • Symptoms: • Chronicinflammationoftheorganswheretheyliveformanyyears. • Abnormalswellingoflowerlimb,scrotum,penis. • HencethediseasenamedaselephantiasisorFilariasis.

  14. RINGWORMS • Pathogen:Microsporum,TrichophytonandEpidermophyton(fungi) • Organsaffected:Skin,nails,foldsofskin,groin. • Methodoftransmission: • Acquiredfromthesoil. • Usingtowel,clothesorevencombofinfectedindividuals. • Symptoms: • Appearanceofdry,scalylesionsinskinnailsandscalp. • Lesionaccompaniedwithintenseitching. • Heatandmoisturehelpthesefungitogrow.

  15. PREVENTIONANDCONTROLOFINFECTIOUSDISEASES: • Maintenanceofpersonalandpublichygieneisveryimportantforpreventionandcontrolofmanyinfectiousdiseases. • Personalhygieneincludes: • Consumptionofcleandrinkingwater,foodvegetablefruits. • Keepingthebodycleans. •  • Publichygieneincludes: • Properdisposalofwasteandexcreta • Periodiccleaninganddisinfectionofwaterreservoirs,pools,cesspools. • Standardpracticesofhygieneinpubliccatering. •  • Incaseofair-bornediseases,closecontactwiththeinfectedpersons • ortheirbelongingsshouldbeavoided.

  16. Forvectorbornediseases • Tocontroloreliminatingthevectorsandthebreedingplaces. • Avoidingstagnationofwaterinandaroundresidentialareas. • Regularcleaningofhouseholdcoolers. • Useofmosquitonets. • IntroducingfisheslikeGambusiainpondthatfeedson • mosquitolarvae. • Sprayingofinsecticidesinditches,drainageareaandswamps. • Windowanddoorsmustbefittedwithwiremesh. • Alltheseprecautionsareusefullforvectorbornediseaselike • dengueandChickungunya,malariaandfilarialetc.

  17. IMMUNITY: • Theoverallabilityofthehosttofightthediseasecausingorganismbyimmunesystemiscalledimmunity. • Therearetwotypesofimmunity: • InnateImmunity. • AcquiredImmunity.ActiveandPassive

  18. Innate(non-specific)immunity: • Calledinbornimmunity. • Alwaysavailabletoprotectoutbody. • Thisiscalledthefirstlineofdefense. • Consistsofvariousbarriersthatprevententryofforeignagentsintothebody. • Ifenterstheyarequicklykilledbysomeothercomponentsof • thissystem.

  19. Differenttypesofbarriers • areasfollows: • Physicalbarriers • Skinisthemainbarrierwhichpreventsentryofmicro-organism. • Mucouscoatingoftheepitheliumliningofrespiratory,gastrointestinalandurinogenitaltractshelpsintrappingmicrobes.

  20. Physiologicalbarriers: • Acidityofthestomachkillsmostingestedmicrobes. • Lysozymeintears,saliva,andsnotkillsbacteriaby • digestingbacterialwall. • PyrogenreleasedbyWBCraisebodytemperaturetopreventsgrowthofmicrobesinoutbody. • Interferoninducesantiviralstateinnon-infectedcells. • Phagocyticbarrier: • Polymorpho-nuclearleukocytes(PMNL-neutrophils),macrophages,andnaturalkillercellsinthebloodandtissueskillpathogenbyphagocytosis.

  21. Inflammatorybarrier • Whenthereisinjurytothetissuethereisreleaseofhistamineandprostaglandinsbythemastcells. • Duetovasodilationthereisleakageofvascularfluidcontainingserumproteinswithantibacterialactivity. • FurtherthereisinfluxofPhagocyticcellsintotheaffected • area.

  22. Acquired(specific)immunity: • Itisalsoknownasadaptiveimmunity. • Thisimmunitydevelopedafterbirthwhenencounteredwithpathogen. • Itsupplementstheimmunityprovidedbytheinnateimmunity.

  23. Acquiredimmunityhasfollowinguniquefeatures: • Specificity:distinguishspecificforeignmolecules. • Diversity:recognizevastvarietyofforeignmolecules. • Discriminationbetweenselfandnon-self:itisabletorecognizeandrespondtomoleculesthatareforeignornon-self.Itwillnotrespondtoourowncellormolecules. • Memory:afterrespondingtotheforeignmicrobesandelimination,thisimmunesystemretainsthememoryofthatencounter(primaryimmuneresponse).Thesecondencounterwiththesamemicrobeevokesaheightenedimmuneresponse.(Secondaryimmuneresponse)

  24. Acquiredimmunityiscarriedoutbytwospecialtypesoflymphocytes: • B-lymphocytes. • T-lymphocytes. •  • TheB-lymphocytesproduceagroupofproteinsinresponsetopathogenintothebloodtofightwiththemcalledantibody. • T-lymphocytesdonotproduceantibodybuthelpB-cellsto • producethem

  25. Structureofantibody: • Eachantibodyhasfour • polypeptidechains. • Twosmallchainscalledlightchains. • Twolongerchainscalledheavy • chains. • AntibodyrepresentedasH2L2. • DifferentclassesofantibodyproducedinoutbodyareIgA,IgM,IgD,IgEandIgG.

  26. AMIvs.CMI: • ImmuneresponsebytheB-cellsbyproductionofantibodyiscalledAntibodymediatedimmuneresponseorhumoralimmuneresponse. • ImmuneresponsebyT-cellsisbyactivationofcytotoxickillercellswhichdetectsanddestroystheforeigncellsandalsocancerouscellscalledcellmediatedimmuneresponse. • RejectionoforganstransplantsareduetoT-lymphocytes. • Tissuematching,bloodgroupmatchingareessentialfororgantransplantation. • Evenaftertissuetypingimmune-suppressantsisrequiredbeforeandaftertransplantation.

  27. Activeimmunity: • Whenthehostisexposedtoantigens,whichmaybeintheformoflivingordeadmicrobesorotherproteins,antibodiesareproducedinthehostbody. • Activeimmunityisslowandtakestimetogiveitsfulleffectiveresponse. • Injectingmicrobesdeliberatelyduringimmunizationor • infectionofmicrobesnaturallyinduceactiveimmunity.

  28. Passiveimmunity: • Readymadeantibodiesaredirectlygiventoprotectthebodyagainstforeignagents. • Colostrumsofmothercontainabundantantibody(IgA)toprotectthechild. • Foetusreceivessomeantibody(IgG)frommotherduring • pregnancy

  29. VaccinationandImmunization: • Theprincipleofimmunizationorvaccinationisbasedonthe • property of‘memory, of the immune system. • Invaccination,apreparationofantigenicproteinofpathogenorinactivated/weakenedpathogen(vaccine)isintroducedintothebody. • Theantibodiesproducedinthebodyagainstvaccine,(antigen)wouldneutralizethepathogenicagentsduringactualinfection. • ThevaccinesalsogeneratememoryBandT-cellsthat • recognizethepathogenquicklyonsubsequentexposure.

  30. Passiveimmunization: • Preformedantibodyorantitoxininjectionforspecificantigen. • Injectionofantiveninforsnakebitetocounterthesnakevenom

  31. Vaccineproduction: • RecombinantDNAtechnologyhasallowedtheproductionofantigenicpolypeptideofpathogeninbacteriaandyeast. • Vaccineproducedbythisapproachallowslargescaleproductionofantigenforimmunization.E.g.hepatitis-Bproducedfromyeast.

  32. Allergies: • Theexaggeratedresponseoftheimmunesystemtocertainantigenspresentintheenvironmentiscalledallergy. • Thesubstancetowhichsuchimmuneresponseisproduced • isallergen. • IgEisproducedduringallergicreactions. • Commonallergensaredust,pollen,animaldanderetc. • Commonsymptomsaresneezing,wateryeyes,runningnoseetc. • Allergyisduetoreleaseofhistamineandserotoninfromthemastcells. • Drugslikeanti-histamine,adrenalinandsteroidquicklyreduce • symptomsofallergy.

  33. Autoimmunity: • Memorybasedacquiredimmunityabletodistinguishforeignmoleculesorcells(pathogen)fromself-cells. • Sometimesduetogeneticandotherunknownreasonsthebodyattacksselfcells.Thisresultsindamagetothebodycellsandiscalledauto-immunedisease.E.g.Rheumatoidarthritis,Multiplesclerosis • Immunesysteminourbody: • Theimmunesystemconsistsof • Lymphoidorgans • Lymphoidtissues • TandB-cells. • Antibodies. •  • Immunesystemrecognizestheforeignantigens,respondstothemandremembersthem. • Theimmunesystemalsoplaysimportantrolein: • Allergicreaction • Autoimmunodiseasesand • Organtransplantation.

  34. Primarylymphoidorgans:bonemarrowand • thymus,productionandmaturationoflymphocytestake • place. • Secondarylymphoidorgans:spleen,tonsil,lymphnode, • Payer’s patches of small intestine and appendix, • whereproliferationanddifferentiationoflymphocytetakeplace. • Bonemarrowisthemainlymphoidorganwhereallbloodcell • includinglymphocytesareproduced. • Thymusisabilobedorganlocatedneartheheart,beneaththebreastbone. • B-lymphocytesareproducedandmaturedinbonemarrow. • T-lymphocytesareproducedinbonemarrowbutmaturedin • thymus

  35. Thespleen • Largebeanshapedorganmainlycontainlymphocytesandphagocytes. • Actsasafilterofthebloodbytrappingblood-bornemicro-organisms. • Spleenisalsoservesasthelargereservoiroferythrocytes. •  • Lymphnode: • Smallsolidstructurelocatedatdifferentpointsalongthelymphaticsystem. • Trapsthemicro-organismsorotherforeignantigens. • Antigentrappedintothelymphnoderesponsibleforactivationanddifferentiationoflymphocytesandcauseimmuneresponse. •  • Mucosalassociatedlymphoidtissues(MALT): • Locatedwithintheliningofmajortract(respiratory,digestiveandurinogenital • tracts) • Itconstitutes50%oflymphoidtissues.

  36. AIDS: • StandsforAcquiredImmunoDeficiencySyndrome. • Deficiencyofimmunesystemthatacquiredduringlifetimeand • notcongenitaldisease. • Syndromemeansagroupofsymptoms. • AIDSwasfirstreportedin1981. • AIDSiscausedbyHIV(HumanImmunodeficiencyVirus) • HIVisretrovirus,havingRNAasthegeneticmaterial. • Methodoftransmission: • Sexualcontactwithinfectedpersons. • Transfusionofcontaminatedbloodandbloodproducts. • Sharinginfectedneedlesasintravenousdruguser. • Frominfectedmothertothefoetusthroughplacenta

  37. LifecycleofHIV: • AftergettingintothebodytheHIVentersintomacrophagesorT-helpercells. • TheviralRNAgenomereplicatedtoformviralDNAwiththeenzyme • calledreversetranscriptase. • The viral DNA gets incorporated into the host cell’s DNA by an enzymecalledintegrase,anddirectstheinfectedcellstoproducevirusparticle. • ThemacrophagecontinuestoproducevirusandactsasHIVfactory. • VirusreleasedfrommacrophageattackT-helpercells. • ThereisprogressivereductioninthenumberofT-helpercells. • DuetoreductionofT-helpercellsthepersonstartssufferingfrom • infectionsofothervirus,fungiandevenparasiteslikeToxoplasma. • Thepatientbecomesimmunodeficientandmorepronetootherdisease.

  38. Diagnosis: • ELISA(enzymelinkedImmuno-sorbentassay)PreventionofAIDS: • AIDShasnocure,preventionisthebestoption. • Safebloodfortransfusion • Useofdisposableneedles • Freedistributionofcondoms. • Preventionofdrugabuse • Advocatingsafesexandpromotingregularcheckup.

  39. CANCER • Uncontrolledcelldivisionleadstoproductionofmassofcellcalledcancer. • Cancerouscelllostthepropertyofcontactinhibition. • Cancerouscelljustcontinuetodividegivingrisetomassesofcellcalledtumors. • Benigntumors: • Normallyremainconfinedtotheiroriginallocation • Donotspreadtootherlocation. • Causelittledamage. • Malignanttumors: • Massofproliferatingcellscalledneoplasticortumorcells. • Thesecellsgrowveryrapidly. • Invadeanddamagesurroundingtissues. • Thesecellsactivelydivideandgrow;theyalsostarvethenormalcells. • Cancerouscellsescapefromthesiteoforiginandmovestodistantplacebyblood,wherevertheygetlodgedmakethenormalcellcancerous.Thispropertyiscalledmetastasis.

  40. Causesofcancer: • Normalcellstransformedintocancerousneoplasticcellsbyphysical,chemicalandbiologicalagents.Theseagentsarecalledcarcinogen. • Physicalagents:ionizingradiationlikeX-rays,gammaraysnon-ionizingradiationslikeUV-rays. • Chemicalagents:Tobaccosmoke,sodiumazaide,Methyl • ethanesulphonate. • Biologicalagents: • Cancercausingvirusescalledoncogenicviruseshaveagenecalledviraloncogenes,inducetransformationofneoplasticcells. • Cellularoncogenes(c-onc)orprotooncogenesinnormalcells,whenactivatedleadtooncogenictransformationofthenormalcells.

  41. Cancerdetectionanddiagnosis • Biopsyandhistopathologicalstudyofthetissues • RadiographylikeX-rays,CT(computerizedtomography) • MRI(magneticresonanceImaging). • Presenceofantibodiesagainstcancer-specificantigen. • Tretmentofcancer • Surgery • Radiationtherapy • Immunotherapy • Chemotherapy • Cryosurgery • Lasertherapy. • α-interferonearesponsemodifierusedtodetectthecancer.

  42. DRUGSANDALCOHOLABUSE: • Opioid • Thedrugswhichbindtospecificopioidreceptorpresentincentralnervoussystemandgastrointestinaltract. • Heroincommonlycalledsmack,chemicallydiacetylmorphine. • Itiswhite,odourless,bittercrystallinecompound. • Obtainedbyacetylationofmorphine. • ExtractedfromlatexofpoppyplantPapaversomniferum. • Generallytakenbysnortingandinjection. • Heroinisdepressantandslowsdownbodyfunction

  43. Canabinoids • Groupofchemicalsthatinteractwiththecanabinoidreceptorsofbrain. • ObtainedfrominflorescenceofCannabissativa. • Flowertop,leavesandresinofcannabisplantareusedinvariouscombinationstoproducemarijuana,hashish,charasandganja. • Generallytakenbyinhalationandoralingestion • Effectsoncardiovascularsystemofthebody.

  44. Cocaine • CocaalkaloidorcocaineisobtainedfromcocaplantErythroxylumcoca. • Itinterfereswithtransportofneuro-transmitterdopamine. • Cocaineiscommonlycalledascokeorcrackisusuallysnorted. • Potentstimulatingeffectoncentralnervoussystem. • Producessenseofeuphoriaandincreasedenergy. • Excessivedosagecauseshallucination. •  •  • Otherplantswithhallucinogenicpropertiesare: • Atropabelladonna • Datura. •  • Canabinoidsarealsobeingabusedbysomesportspersons.

  45. Medicinaluseofdrugs • Barbiturates,amphetamines,benzodiazepines,lysergicaciddiethylamide(LSD)usedasmedicinestohelppatientscopewithmentalillnesses,depressionandinsomnia. • Morphineisaveryeffectivesedativeandpainkillerusedforsurgerypatient • Plantproductwithhallucinogenicpropertyhaveusedasfolk- • medicine,religiousceremoniesandrituals.

  46. Tobacco • Itissmoked,chewedorusedasasnuff. • Tobaccocontainsnicotineanalkaloid. • NicotinestimulatesAdrenalglandstoraisebloodpressureandincreasedheartrates. • Smokingtobaccoisassociatedwithcanceroflung,urinarybladder,andthroat,bronchitis,emphysema,coronaryheartdisease,gastriculceretc. • SmokingincreasedCOcontentofbloodreduceoxygencarryingcapacityofhemoglobin. • Tobaccochewingisassociatedwithcanceroforalcavity.

  47. AdolescenceandDrug/AlcoholAbuse: • Theperiodbetween12-18yearsofagemaythoughtofanadolescentperiod. • Adolescentisabridgelinkingchildhoodandadulthood. • Curiosity,needforadventureandexcitement,andexperimentation,arethecommoncauseofdrug/alcoholabuse.

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