GRAMMAR

1. GRAMMAR PARTS OF SPEECH

4. Nouns These are divided into: • Proper nouns - names of people, places or things. (e.g. Wellington, Pink, Westlake Girls High School) • Concrete nouns – things which exist (e.g. car, school, house, shell) • Abstract nouns – things which cannot be seen or touched. Ideas, attitudes or emotions. (e.g. love sorrow, idealism, loyalty) • Collective nouns – used for referring to groups of things (e.g. a fleet of ships, a gaggle of geese, a herd of cows)

5. Determiners or Articles There are 2 types of determiner or article: Definite article = the Indefinite article = a, an, some e.g. Put the books on the desk in the room – this refers to a definite, specific, certain desk. Put the books on a desk in the room – this is an indefinite, unspecified, uncertain desk. You can test to see if a word is a noun by putting an article (or determiner) in front of it. Nouns beginning with vowels (a,e,i,o and u) must have an in front of them… e.g. An apple, an ice-cream, an umbrella. While nouns beginning with consonants can have a before them… e.g. A banana, a car, a student. If an article (the, a, an, some…) can be used in front of the word then that word is probably a noun. e.g. the house (noun) but the under (not a noun) an apple (noun) but a smiling (not a noun) some anger (noun) but some violent (not a noun)

6. Pronouns These words replace nouns. e.g. John bought the book for his wife and he gave it to her. What if we didn’t have pronouns? Consider this little story…. David’s mother reminded David to go and brush David’s teeth before David left for school. David’s mother asked David if David had packed David’s lunch. Then David and David’s sister Jenny walked to the bus stop where David and Jenny were joined by David and Jenny’s friends. Replace the words in bold with the correct pronoun. Rewrite the sentence to do this.

7. Adjectives Adjectives describe nouns. They add information to nouns or modify them. e.g. A black cat. A tall man. A dark, threatening sky. Pre modifiers are adjectives before the noun. e.g. The long, dusty road stretched for miles. Post modifiers are adjectives after the noun. e.g. The road, long and dusty, stretched for miles. It is possible to have too many adjectives in a sentence. e.g. The great big, huge, ugly, scary monster chased me. Sometimes less is more! Choose your adjectives carefully!

8. Types of adjectives… Some describe … green hat, brave woman, happy cat. Some tell ushow much or how many … little money, some sunshine, lots of bread…. Some are numerals… ten fish, the second runner, all men.. Some demonstrate ….this book, that car, these people… Some are possessive (owned)my room, her motorbike, their uniforms. Some are ‘proper’ (names) a French woman, my English class, the Massey way.

9. Adverbs Adverbs describe verbs. They add to them! These are the HOW words we use in sentences. They give more information to the reader, telling us how the action was done. Many of them end in ly but NOT ALL! e.g. He walks quickly. Some people talk slowly. They played happily. BUT there are other HOW words too…. e.g. They ran fast. They shop often. The girl fell hard. Adverbs can also add more meaning to adjectives – e.g. A very good essay. A fairly easy job. Too hot. Or other adverbs – The car moved quite slowly.

10. Conjunctions These are joining words. They join words, phrases and sentences. Some conjunctions are: and, because, but, if, although, whereas, until, when, so, for, as, or…. e.g. John and Jim went although they didn’t have to because they were not needed. We went to the shop to buy drinks but we didn’t have enough money. The bus made it up the hill but broke down on the other side. Sometimes the conjunction comes at the beginning of the sentence! e.g. Although they didn’t want to, Kate and Lina washed the dishes. Because they were late, Alan and Paul got a detention.

11. Prepositions Tell us where things are! (POSITION) They connect nouns (or pronouns) and other words. Below the window. Beside the desk. Under the umbrella. Or where things are going…. To the shops, from the beach Some examples are: To, from, at, on, under, below, past, for, beside, around, with, opposite.. e.g. She went down the road in the car with her brother to the shop beside the bridge.

12. Verbs Lights….camera…..ACTION!!! Verbs are ACTION words. The athlete jumped The bus stopped Horses gallop These are the doing word verbs with which we are all familiar. There are other verbs – irregular verbs – which are the most commonly used ones: I am happy. Are you sorry? We were late. She is gorgeous.

13. Its all about timing……. Verbs tell us WHEN things happen. Past – We laughed We were laughing Present– We are laughing We laugh Future – We will laugh We will be laughing There are also verbs called auxiliaries. Auxiliary really means to be added to…so these are words that add something – usually tense – to the verb e.g. I haveseen the light! Can you answer the question? She willfeel better tomorrow. Auxiliary verbs are: may, might, shall, will, should, can, could, would, have, had, has…

14. Finite Verbs Verbs with the word ‘to’ in front of them are infinite…. They can be changed, e.g. to walk, to eat, to walk, to become etc. These can all be changed into an infinite number of forms when we give them a subject and a tense. For example: I am walking. She is writing. He seems annoyed. These are finite sentences because they involve people and an action in time (subject and tense). Most present tense verbs end in ing e.g. walking, looking, running, being. Past tense verbs often end in ed walked, looked. BUT some don’t, e.g. ran, been. Future tense usually involves an auxiliary verb. e.g. I will be walking tomorrow

15. Finite and non finite verbs • Every sentence has a finite verb. This is the verb which belongs to the subject. They can stand on their own and they give the tense. • When the verb is incomplete it is nonfinite and needs to have other verbs (auxiliaries) to make sense. • e.g. The girls staring doesn’t make sense so staring is a nonfinite verb – it’s not finished it needs more (an auxiliary like are for example. • But The girls stared does make sense so stared is a finite verb – it doesn’t need other bits attached to make sense.

16. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs A verb that takes (links with) an object is called a transitive verb. If there is no object the verb is intransitive. Verbs have a subject (a doer of the action). Sometimes the verb also has an object (something that has the action done to it) e.g. You play. Play = verb, you = subject or ‘doer’ of the action. Play is therefore an intransitive verb – (no object). You play the guitar. The guitar is the object that is played. Play is now a transitive verb because it ‘takes’ an object. Find the subject and the object (if there is one) in the following sentences: 1/ He sucks his thumb. 2/ The bird warbled it’s song. 3/ We voted for you. 4/ Jim wrote a letter to Mr Jones 5/ Mike flew the kite high in the air. 6/ Waterfalls fall. 7/ That sucks! 8/ I left.

17. The verbs are underlined. Are they transitive or intransitive? • The heron flew. transitive / intransitive 2 The printer spewed paper. transitive / intransitive 3 I spread the jam on my toast. transitive / intransitive • Waves curl over. transitive / intransitive • Write a sentence with a transitive verb. 6 Write a sentence with an intransitive verb.

18. Sentences A complete sentence has a finite verb. “Running down the street.” This is NOT a complete sentence because it does NOT have a finite verb – it has no place in time. Is it past, present or future?WHO or WHAT was running down the street? We don’t know. “Aroha was running down the street” This IS a complete sentence because we know WHO is running (Aroha) and we know when because ‘was’ (the auxiliary) gives us the tense or time – past. “I can see a horse running down the street.” This is also a complete sentence because we know what was running and we know when – right now, in the present!

19. More on sentences…. When we are speaking we often speak in unfinished sentences… e.g. “Going to Rarotonga these holidays?” If a sentence has pieces missing but can still be understood, it is a minor sentence. HOWEVER we don’t usually use these in writing – more in speech. If you are using speech in your writing then it is fine to use minor sentences. If a sentence has parts missing and cannot be understood it is called INCOMPLETE. e.g “Are you getting a….?” In writing we need to use complete sentences UNLESS we are using direct speech.

20. “Well I declare….!” Declarative sentences are just saying something. Declaring it. e.g. “I am going to physio after school.” “I have a letter to post.” Interrogative sentences are asking or ‘interrogating’ e.g. “Are you going to physio after school?” “Have you posted that letter yet?” Imperatives give orders! e.g. “Go to physio after school!” “Post the letter!”