Lecture 13: Theological and Intellectual Developments

1. Lecture 13: Theological and Intellectual Developments Ann T. Orlando 19 April 2011

2. Introduction • History Review • Early Modern Physics and the Church • New Political Theories • New Moral Perspectives • Real question: how do we ‘know’ and what is relation to belief in God • Enlightenment answer is one of either presumption or despair • In my opinion we are no longer doing history, but modern (contemporary) analysis

3. Political Developments in Europe (1500 – 1850) • England: Tudors, Revolution, Restoration with broader democracy, American Revolution, King as head of State • France: Strong Kings, Revolution, Napoleon, Restoration, Revolution, Democracy, sometimes King as head of State • Germany: Separate Duchies, Revolution, Strong National Leader (Bismarck), King as head of State • Italy: Separate states; Revolution; National Unity with Democracy, end of Papal States, King as Head of State

4. Papacy • Paul III, pope 1543-1549 • Concerned about reform of Church • Approved Jesuits • Called Council of Trent • Popes 17th and 18th C faced with rising ‘national’ Catholicism • Gallicanism (France) • Febronianism (Germany) • Josephism (HRE) • Tension between national interests and universal Church interests leads to suppression of Jesuit order in 1773 by Pope Clement XIV • After Napoleon, Catholic countries view papacy as politically stabilizing force; Congress of Vienna, 1815, restores Papal States • Papacy becomes increasingly ‘conservative’ in reaction to European political and ideological turmoil during 18th and 19th C

5. Development of a new secular philosophy: Enlightenment • Science (as we now define it) as the basis for knowledge • Human reason can figure it (anything, everything) out; is always making progress • Devalue history, tradition • Toleration as the basis for political-religious relationship • Religion, unlike scientific discoveries, cannot be ‘proved’; all of equal value (or of no value) • Separation of Church and State • Individual rights, not duty, as basis for political systems and society • Social contract not natural law as basis of legal system • Liberal enlightenment becomes an alternative to established religions

6. The Enlightenment Emphasis on Science • Before Enlightenment ‘science’ meant any area of human knowledge • During the Enlightenment it comes to mean investigation of nature by our senses through inductive reasoning and then applying mathematical models to describe observations

7. Philosophical Developments During the 17th C (Early Modern) • Rationalist: Knowledge is from ideas • Rene Descartes (1596-1650) • Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) • Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) • Empiricists: Knowledge is from senses • Francis Bacon (1561-1626) • Galileo (1564-1642) • Pierre Gassendi (1597-1655) • Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) • John Locke (1632-1704)

8. 17th C Philosophy: Rationalists • Rationalist: Knowledge is from ideas • Rene Descartes (1596-1650) • Mathematician and founder of analytic geometry and algebra • “I think, therefore I am” • Dualistic approach to mind and body • Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) • Mathematician and founder of laws of probability • Member of Jansenists: heretical Catholic group that was very Augustinian • Pascal’s Wager on the existence of God • Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) • Mathematician and founder of calculus • Because God is all good, this must be the best of all possible worlds • Complex metaphysics; many similarities to Stoicism

9. Church and Physics in the Thirteenth through the Seventeenth Century • Just as scholastic theology relied on Aristotle, so did medieval physics • Earth-centered cosmology • All substances composed of matter and form • No change to celestial spheres beyond the moon • Velocity is inversely proportional to density of medium through which an object moves; therefore a vacuum is impossible • Solar, lunar, stellar and planetary motion relative to earth computed using epicycles • Ptolemy (2nd C AD), Alexandria • Very, very accurate • Math very complex see http://astro.unl.edu/naap/ssm/animations/ptolemaic.swf (University of Nebraska)

10. 17th C Empiricist Philosopher:Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626) • The modern idea of technological “progress” (in the sense of a steady, cumulative, historical advance in applied scientific knowledge) began with Bacon’s The Advancement of Learning • Vehemently opposed to Aristotle • Champions inductive logic based upon extensive observation; proceed from particular to general

11. New Observations in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries • Copernicus (1473 – 1543) speculates that the earth circles the sun • Makes math easier • Galileo’s Telescope allows observations of heavens that calls older physics into question • Reveals changes in sun, moons of Jupiter • Earth revolves around the sun • New understanding of velocity (Galileo) • Dropped balls fall at same rate, regardless of weight • Velocity of a body not defined by resistance of medium • Experiments with gasses leads to speculation about atomic theory of matter, not matter and form

12. Impact of Telescope Becomes obvious that entities above the sun do change Far more variety in celestial sphere than previously imagined Mathematical simplicity of heliocentric system very appealing Circular orbits Note Galileo’s contributions to physics far beyond astronomy Dynamics (pendula) Motion (weight not relevant to speed at which a body falls, Tower of Pisa experiment) But most of all using mathematics to describe laws of physics Galileo part of broad-based reaction against Aristotelianism Galileo (1564-1642)

13. St. Robert Bellarmine (1542-1621) • Concerned about interpretation of Scripture, especially Joshua 10 • Heliocentric system okay to make math easier, • Draws distinction between easier math and reality • But also concerned that circular-orbit heliocentric system not as accurate as epicycles and geocentric system • ….And he was right

14. Galileo vs Church • Conflict begins during Pope Paul V pontificate • Background of Reformation and Council of Trent • 1616 “Copernicanism” condemned, • De Revolutionibus placed on index • Galileo told not to teach it • 1623 Maffeo Barberini becomes Pope Urban VIII • Admirer of Galileo • 1632 Galileo publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican • Published with approval of censors in Rome and Florence • Made fun of Pope, who saw himself as Simplicio, defender of Ptolemy • 1633 Galileo brought before Inquisition • House arrest • Galileo tries to defend himself using….Augustine • Allowed to return to Florence after recanting

15. Resolution of the Physics: Elliptical Orbits • By carefully analyzing data, Kepler concludes that orbits are elliptical • Mathematics of three laws of planetary motion • Kepler supported by Jesuit astronomers • Description at http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/kepler.html

16. Enlightenment Mythology of Galileo • “Despite all its enlightenment about other matters, the eighteenth century was almost a golden age for the invention and diffusion of myths about Galileo’s trial.” – Finocchiaro, Retrying Galileo, 111 • Galileo held in prison • Galileo had his eyes gauged out • Galileo had to live on bread and water

17. Situation Today: Benedict XVI and Sapienza • 20th and 21st Centuries no strangers to embellishing Galileo affair • Bertold Brecht, Galileo, expands on clash of faith and reason • Most recently the controversy around Pope Benedict XVI planned visit to Sapienza University in January 2008 • Physics faculty protest Pope’s visit because of reputed comments he made in 1992 about Galileo; ‘authoritative’ reference was a wikipedia article • Pope cancels visit • Rector of Sapienza eventually acknowledges criticism misdirected, and invites Pope to return

18. The most famous man in Europe in his own day and thereafter until Einstein Founder of calculus Fundamental discoveries in optics, mechanics, gravitation Very deeply religious; Focuses on Biblical exegesis, not physics, at end of his life But rejected Jesus as divine; considered himself an Arian Alexander Pope: “Nature and nature's laws lay hid by night; God said let Newton be and all was light” The Giant of the Scientific Age: Isaac Newton

19. Key Difference Between 17thC and 18th C Enlightenment Figures • 17th C Enlightenment Figures • Scientists and Philosophers • Devout Christians (Arians) • 18th C Enlightenment Figures • Political philosophers and activists • Deists or atheists • Why rise of Deism, why not just atheism? • Religion needed to enforce morality among ignorant masses • To rescue science; there is order in the world and we can know what it is; that is Intelligent Design

20. Despair of knowing • Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) • Huguenot • His Historical and Critical Dictionary was single most popular work in 18th C • David Hume (1711-1776) Dialog Concerning Natural Religion • Published after his death • Attacks both religion and science (i.e., attacks deism) • Severe attack against Intelligent Design • Skepticism is the only acceptable intellectual stance • Voltaire, Lisbon Earthquake Poem • Voltaire starts as a deist, becomes an atheist and a skeptic • Deeply connected with skepticism was problem of evil and theodicy (a term invented by Leibniz in opposition to Bayle)

21. François-Marie d'Arouet, Pen name Voltaire Deeply influenced by Englishman Lord Bolingbroke, living in exile in France Introduces Voltaire to importance of Locke and Newton Introduces Voltaire to a libertine life-style Influence re-enforced when Voltaire exiled to England Upon return to France, Voltaire wrote Lettres Philosophique Highly dangerous by authorities Championed Newton over Descartes; bitterly opposed to Leibnitz Group of French intellectuals gathered around Voltaire, know as the philosophes Bitterly opposed to Throne and Altar, “Crush the infamy” Set the social and political agenda for the French Revolution Deeply shaken by Lisbon earthquake, All Saints Day 1755 Deeply bitter toward “best of all possible worlds” Candide and Lisbon Earthquake Poem Voltaire (1694-1778)

22. New Political Philosophy: John Locke • Primarily found in Two Treatises on Government • May have been written to justify revolt against Charles II • First Treatise starts with Adam and shows that no one was appointed ruler by Divine right (against Bishop Fulmer) • God created man, and we are God’s ‘property’; • It is illicit to destroy another’s property: no suicide or murder • But must also ‘develop’ and use wisely property

23. Political Philosophy (cont.)Second Treatise on Government • Purpose of political power: ‘Political power, then, I take to be a right of making laws with penalties of death, and consequently all less penalties, for the regulating and preserving of property, and of employing the force of the community, in the execution of such laws, and in the defense of the common-wealth from foreign injury; and all this only for the public good’ • God endowed his ‘property’ man with means of survival: life, liberty and man’s own property • If there is no government, then people live in a ‘state of nature’ example: American wilderness • But it is allowable to ‘take property’ which has not been developed • Allowable to have slaves as property who are conquered in a just war • Children are property of parents until age of reason

24. Second Treatise (cont.) • With more sophisticated development of property, man developed a money based economy which required more complex contract laws and the necessity of civil (NOT ecclesial) governments • Legitimate civil government then should derive its right to rule from the common desire of a collection of individuals to protect and legitimately administer their property • Social contract theory of government • More positive view than Hobbes • If civil government does not uphold these rights, then it is illegitimate and should be changed • Through rebellion and regicide if necessary

25. Locke and Religion in Society • Religious ‘truth,’ because it was built upon many levels of ideas was probably, not absolutely true • Many different religions demonstrate that there is no one universal Religion • Thus, religion is a private matter without connection to public life and the securing of life, liberty and property • All religions should be allowed as long as they do not adversely affect property rights and civil government • Catholicism should be curtailed because of Catholic claims to be ‘over’ temporal, civil affairs • Atheism should be discouraged because atheist may not be trusted to keep their word in a contract

26. New Moral Order: Utilitarianism • What utilitarianism rejects • Virtue as basis for ethics • Religion as basis for right conduct • Natural Law • Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) • Embrace Epicurean pleasure and pain as basis for human conduct • Motives for action based on self-interest • John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) • Studied Bentham, also embraced Epicurus • Extends Bentham to principle of greatest good for greatest number • Greatest good defined by society

27. 19th and 20th C New Social Orders • 19th and early 20th C period of violent revolutions in Europe (France, Italy, Germany, Russia) • Also a period of violent revolutions and wars of independence throughout Western Hemisphere, Asia and Africa • Under the pretense of ‘will of the people’ new totalitarian regimes form in many countries • Marxism develops a theory of history and society that portrays religion as a phase that enlightened peoples will outgrow • No child of 20th C can think that Enlightenment has led to a golden political age: Shoah, gulags, genocide, World Wars, etc., etc., etc.

28. How Western Intellectual Thought Has Changed Before Treaty of Westphalia After Treaty of Westphalia Law based on protection of individual’s life, liberty, property Focus on individual rights in social contract Science means only physics, chemistry, biology Only empirical truth exists Laws of nature Religion purely private • Human law based on natural law as a subset of God’s eternal law • Focus on individual duties as a member of society • Science means any systematic field of study, theology • Absolute truth does exist • Natural law • Religion and government NOT separable

29. Pope Pius IX • Papacy 1846-1878 • Considered a liberal, but shocked by revolutions of 1848 • Negotiates Church rights with many European governments (concordats) • Issues Syllabus of Errors condemning much enlightenment thought • Promotes Thomism as ‘official’ theology of Church • Convenes Vatican I in 1869 • Loses Papal States in 1870 • Beatified along with John XXIII in 2000

30. Catholicism’s Response • Syllabus of Errors, 1864 • Series of anathemas of Enlightenment views • Crude and ineffectual • Vatican I (1866-1870) • Reaffirmed that we can have sure knowledge in faith and morals (infallibility of Pope, Thomism as official theology) • Reaffirmed that religion is important to society’s well being • Reaffirm the importance of natural law • Increased spiritual devotion: Lourdes 1858, Fatima 1917 • Vatican II (1962-1965) • Toleration defined as toleration of religion against secular societies trying to prevent religious practice • Concern about new economic systems and materialism, whether Marxist or capitalist, that in fact undermine dignity of individual and families • Renewal of liturgical practices; often based upon early Christian practice

31. Reading • Skim McManner Ch 8 • 1. Robert Bellarmine Letter on Galileo available at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1615bellarmine-letter.html • 2. Blaise Pascal Pensees Series III available at http://www.classicallibrary.org/pascal/pensees/pensees03.htm • 3. Locke A Letter Concerning Toleration available at http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer- reldem?id=LocTole.xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/p arsed&tag=public&part=all • OR Second Treatise on Government Chapters 1-5 (Section 1-76) and Chpater 12 (Sections 143-148) available at http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/LocTre2.html • 4. Thomas Jefferson Letter to Danbury Baptist Association available at http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/danpre.html • 5. Voltaire Lisbon Earthquake in The Portable Voltaire. Tran. Ben Redman. New York: Viking Press, 1962. 556-569. Course Pack • 6. John Adams Commonwealth of Massachusetts Constitution Preamble and First Part • available at http://www.mass.gov/legis/const.htm • Suggested Paper Topic 13: Compare Pascal and Voltaire OR; what should be the relation between faith and science; OR what is the relation between religion and politics? • Skim Pius IX Syllabus of Errors available at http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P9SYLL.HTM