A Brief Tour of Roman History in the First Century A.D.

1. A Brief Tour of Roman History in the First Century A.D. Kristen Slattery, M.A.&Sheila E. McGinn, Ph.D.

2. Three Periods of Roman History • Monarchy 753–509 BC • Republic 509–27 BC • Empire 27 BC–AD 476

3. Octavian “Augustus”(27 BC – AD14) • 31 BC—defeats Mark Antony at Actium • 27 BC—consecutive consulships to 23 BC • Given title of “Augustus” • 23 BC—Tribunician power

4. Augustus at Prima Porta • Brought peace (Pax Romana) between Romans • Had auctoritas (authority, unofficial power) • Has the powers of consul and proconsul, and so is equal to his co-magistrates, but he has more authority • His voice carries more weight because he did more for the state

5. Took title of Pontifex Maximus in 12 BC. Notice the Augustan image: in 12 BC he would have been 51 years old but, no matter what his age, he is always portrayed as the eternal eighteen-year-old.

6. Octavian’s Legacy • The genius of Augustus was that he made himself indispensable to the empire. • In some ways, Augustus was like Christ: He described himself as the pinnacle of history, as the new Aeneas. His reign was a turning point in history • Jesus was born during the reign of Augustus.

7. Tiberius Claudius Nero (A.D. 14–37) • There were problems with who would succeed Augustus because he only had one daughter, Julia. • Finally Tiberius, Julia’s second husband, won out over the other contenders.

8. Tiberius (AD 14–37) • What Tiberius does in terms of the state is eliminate elections: now the voting for various offices takes place in the Senate. • Majestas (treason) trials: formerly they had applied to those who went against the state. Now, under Tiberius, they applied to those who said anything against the Emperor (Tiberius or Augustus), or who praised Caesar’s conspirators.

9. Tiberius (AD 14–37) • Another story is that of the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus. He was only an equestrian, but lusted after power and, as Tiberius’ second in command, began strategically planning his own ascent to power.

10. Tiberius (AD 14–37) • In A.D. 23 Tiberius began taking himself out of politics; meanwhile Sejanus executed many accused of majestas. • Sejanus also asked to marry Tiberius’ daughter, but was refused. He was made consul in 31. • Also in 31, evidence was brought to Tiberius that Sejanus had convinced Tiberius’ son’s wife to kill Tiberius’ son, and so Sejanus was arrested and killed.

11. Tiberius (AD 14–37) • AD. 31–37 Tiberius spent on the island of Capri where he held his own reign of terror…. Majestas trials continue, and many of Tiberius’ family members are eliminated.

12. Tiberius ( AD 14-37) • During the reign of Tiberius, Jesus began his public ministry and was executed by means of crucifixion around A.D. 30. • Also under Tiberius the early Christian church began, the Pentecost experience happened, and Stephen was martyred.

13. Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus “Caligula”(A.D. 37–41) • Caligula was very autocratic; tried cases by himself without a jury of advisors (never been done before) • Claimed he was Jupiter on earth • Incestuous with his 3 sisters; liked Drusilla the best and deified her after her death • Assassinated by some Praetorian officers and senators

15. Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus (A.D. 41–54) • He felt inadequate because • He was not related by blood to Augustus; • He took the throne in a coup (and so had illegitimate standing); and • He lacked charisma. • To legitimate himself, he invaded Britain in A.D. 43. • He was easily manipulated by his freedmen and wives • He married four times. One wife was Messalina, a great beauty who was executed when she was caught being married to someone else. • Another was Agrippina the Younger, his niece. He changed the laws on incest so he could marry her.

16. Claudius as Jupiter

17. Claudius (A.D. 41-54) • He granted citizenship to the Gauls in 48. • Claudius overlooked his own son for Nero, the son of his wife/niece, Agrippina. He betrothed Nero to his daughter Octavia. • Under Claudius’ reign, Paul began his evangelization in different cities around the empire, including Corinth, Athens, Rome, Galatia, etc. This continued into the reign of the next emperor, Nero.

19. Nero Claudius Caesar (A.D. 54-68) • Nero was 16 or 17 at the time of his succession; he was the great-great-grandson of Augustus, and so people had high hopes for him. Early in his reign, he was dominated by his mother and his tutors, Burrus, the Praetorian Prefect, and Seneca the Stoic philosopher. • There were problems with the Parthians in the east, so Nero appointed Corbulo as sort of a helper-emperor in the east. Corbulo gets too powerful for Nero and is forced to commit suicide.

20. Nero (A.D. 54–68) • Nero is crazy. • Turning points: • A.D. 59: Agrippina executed (her boat “accidentally” collapsed; she escaped, but then a praetorian killed her) • A.D. 62: tutors gone (Burrus was poisoned, Seneca was “asked to retire”) • Great fire in A.D. 64 (Tacitus exaggerates a little about Nero’s role in it.)

21. Nero (A.D. 54–68) • Nero needed a scapegoat and so the Christians were blamed for the fire. Persecutions of the Christians in Rome only. • Nero the artist: he thought of himself as a great artist and singer and performed in public…nobody was allowed to leave during his shows. This is low, only the lowest class perform in concerts. • Conspiracy of Piso in AD 65. Seneca and Petronius, among others, are forced to commit suicide. • Nero eventually was declared a public enemy and committed suicide.

22. The Julio-Claudian Imperial Family Tree

23. A.D. 69: The Year of the Four Emperors • After Nero’s death, there was a question of who would take over. • In a nutshell, there were three minor emperors who reigned during A.D. 69: Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. • Vespasian eventually won out. He had been east fighting in Judea against the Jews, but comes home to be emperor. His son, Titus, finishes the war for him.

24. Titus Flavius Vespasianus (69–79) • In addition to the Jewish War, he conquers more territory in Germany and reorganizes the eastern provinces. • He has two adult children, Titus and Domitian, and marks them for succession. In this he changes from an adoptive succession to a dynastic succession.

25. Vespasian

26. Flavian Lady

27. Titus Flavius Vespasianus (79–81) • Vespasian’s son • Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 • Completion of the Coliseum in 80 (Vespasian built it, Titus dedicated it.) • Coliseum was built on land that Nero had confiscated from the city after the fire in A.D. 64. • The amphitheater is named the “coliseum” because Nero had built a huge colossus of Apollo there––with Nero’s face on it.

28. Titus (79–81) • When his father became emperor, he finished the Jewish war and was responsible for the destruction of the temple in 70

29. Titus

31. Titus Flavius Domitianus (81–96) • Grouchy because Titus received nice powers under their father, Vespasian, but Domitian just got sloppy seconds. • Changed his name to his wife’s name (He married the daughter of Domitius Corbulo) • Alienated the Senate because he gave important positions to his friends instead of those who had worked their way up.

32. Domitian (81–96) • He had monarchical tendencies such as perpetual censorship, micromanagement. • He also built a huge new palace and used regal and divine terms (dominus et deus) • He was murdered (like Nero) because the imperial courtiers were alienated—he was stabbed in the groin. • No successor, world was afraid of another A.D. 69 civil war/fight for power.

33. Domitian

34. Marcus Cocceius Nerva(96–98) • He was very old. He was chosen to be emperor because he was safe; he would not be around long, and ensured a peaceful succession. • Also, he had been there in A.D. 69 and surrounded himself with people who knew how to get through civil war. • Although he never commanded a major army, he was an expert in internal palace politics. • His self-depiction was very pro-senatorial, as opposed to Domitian.

35. Nerva (96–98) • 97: Nerva is besieged in his own palace!! • The praetorians demand the heads of those who killed Domitian • Now Nerva is shown to be weak • Nerva adopts Trajan and kills two birds with one stone: he solves the problem of who will succeed him, and Trajan leads a huge army, so he solves the problem of his own show of weakness.

36. Nerva

37. Marcus Ulpius Traianus (Trajan) (96–117) • He is Spanish and there are problems with his legitimacy: • No blood ties with his predecessor • He’s the successor of a weak emperor • His succession looked like a coup, even if it wasn’t • He was not in Rome for the adoption or the succession • After Nerva’s death, he doesn’t come home right away. (He’s on the Danube securing the frontier.) Before he comes he ensures the loyalty of the Danube soldiers—this in a way legitimates his power.

38. Trajan (96–117) • Early in his reign he fought 2 Dacian wars • Loot from these wars allows him to build his forum and column. Column is the spiral depiction of the story of the Dacian war. • Trajan was remembered as a great emperor because he did great things abroad and at home (called the Optimus Princeps —the best emperor) • Died of old age.

40. Forum of Trajan • Built as political propaganda • Used expensive colored marbles brought from all over the empire; this shows imperial power and wealth • It is the biggest and most grand of all the imperial fora built after the original forum.

41. 4 7 3 1 2 5 6 1. Temple of the Divine Trajan 2. Column of Trajan 3. Basilica Ulpia 4. Markets of Trajan 5. Statue of Trajan on horseback 6. & 7. Libraries (one Latin, one Greek)

45. Letter from Pliny to Trajan • Pliny to the Emperor Trajan (ca. A.D. 110) • It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can better give guidance to my hesitation or inform my ignorance? I have never participated in trials of Christians. I therefore do not know what offenses it is the practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should be any distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; whether pardon is to be granted for repentance, or, if a man has once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses, or only the offenses associated with the name are to be punished. • Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome. • Soon accusations spread, as usually happens, because of the proceedings going on, and several incidents occurred. An anonymous document was published containing the names of many persons. Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ. • They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations. Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deacons. But I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition. • I therefore postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you. For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found. Hence it is easy to imagine what a multitude of people can be reformed if an opportunity for repentance is afforded. • Trajan to Pliny • You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not possible to lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it--that is, by worshiping our gods--even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age.